\\PergamonAnnalsofTourismResearch,Vol.26,No.2,pp.349Ð370,1999Þ1999ElsevierScienceLtd.AllrightsreservedPrintedinGreatBritain0160-7383/99$19.00+0.00PII:S0160-7383(98)00103-0RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYINTOURISMEXPERIENCENingWangZhongshanUniversity,ChinaAbstract:Thispaperaimsataconceptualclarificationofthemeaningsofauthenticityintouristexperiences.Threeapproachesarediscussed,objectivism,constructivism,andpost-modernism,andthelimitsof{{object-relatedauthenticity||arealsoexposed.Itissuggestedthatexistentialauthenticityisanalternativesourceintourism,regardlessofwhetherthetouredobjectsareauthentic.Thisconceptisfurtherclassifiedintotwodifferentdimensions:intra-personalandinter-personal.Thisdemonstratesthatexistentialauthenticitycanexplainagreatervarietyoftouristexperiences,andhencehelpsenhancetheexplanatorypowerofthe{{authenticity-seeking||modelintourism.Keywords:authenticity,existentialauthenticity,tourism,touristexperiencesÞ1999ElsevierScienceLtd.Allrightsreserved.Resume:Pourrepenserl|authenticiteÁunedanslesexperiencesdutourisme.Cetarticleviseaclarificationconceptuelledessignificationsdel|authenticitedanslesexperiencesdutourisme.Ondiscutedetroisfacžonsd|aborderlesujet:objectivisme,constructivismeetpostmodernisme,enexaminantaumeÁrequelieeauxchoses||.Onsugge¼metempsleslimitesde{{l|authenticitel|authenticiteestunesourcealternativeentourismesansconsiderersilesobjetsvisitessontauthentiques.Ceconceptestclassifieenencoredeuxdimensions:interpersonnelleetintra-personnelle.Cecidemontrequel|authenticitepeutexpliquerunplusgrandnombred|ex-periencesdestouristes,cequiaidearehausserlepouvoirexplicatifdumodeledu{{chercheurÁÁd|authenticites:authenticite||dutourisme.Mots-cle,authenticiteexistentielle,tourisme,experiencesdutourisme.Þ1999ElsevierScienceLtd.Allrightsreserved.INTRODUCTIONMacCannell(1973,1976)introducedtheconceptofauthenticitytosociologicalstudiesoftouristmotivationsandexperiencestwodecadesago.Sincethen,thesubjecthasbecomeanagendafortourismstudy(Brown1996;Bruner1989,1994;Cohen1979a,1988;Daniel1996;Ehrentraut1993;Harkin1995;Hughes1995;Littrell,AndersonandBrown1993;MoscardoandPearce1986;PearceandMoscardo1985,1986;Redfoot1984;Salamone1997;Selwyn,1996a,Shenhav-Keller1993;Silver1993;TurnerandManning1988;Wang1997a).However,withtheconceptofauthenticitybeingwidelyused,itsambiguityandlimitationshavebeenincreasinglyexposed.Criticsquestionitsusefulnessandvaliditybecausemanytouristmotivationsorexperi-encescannotbeexplainedintermsoftheconventionalconceptofauthenticity.Phenomenasuchasvisitingfriendsandrelatives,beachholidays,oceancruising,naturetourism,visitingDisneyland,personalNingWangisAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofSociologyatZhongshanUniversityGuangzhou,P.R.ofChina.Emailðlpds@zsulink.zsu.edu.cnŁ).HeobtainedhisPhDdegreefromUniversityofSheffield,UK.HisresearchinterestisintheSociologyofTourism,focusingontherelationshipbetweentourismandmodernity.Heiscurrentlywritingabookonthesociologyoftourism.349350RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYhobbiessuchasshopping,fishing,hunting,orsports,andsoon,havenothingtodowithauthenticityinMacCannell|ssense(Schudson1979;Stephen1990;Urry1990).AccordingtoUrry,{{the{searchforauthenticity|istoosimpleafoundationforexplainingcontemporarytourism.||(1991:51).Butstillauthenticityisrelevanttosomekindsoftourismsuchasethnic,historyorculturetourism,whichinvolvetherepresentationoftheOtherorofthepast.However,iftheconceptisoflimitedapplicability,thenhowcanitbeofcentralimportanceintourismstudies?Canonecontinuetouseitwhileignoringthedif-ficultiesrelatingtoit,discarditaltogether,oralternatively,redefineitsmeaninginordertojustifyandenhanceitsexplanatorypower?Thispaperconcentratesonthethirdchoice:rethinkingthemean-ingsofauthenticityintermsofexistentialphilosophers|usageoftheidea.Whilethetwoconventionalmeaningsintheliterature(namely,objectiveandconstructiveauthenticity)arediscussed,itsthirdusage(existentialauthenticity)willbesuggestedasanalternative.Thispaperhastwoaims.First,thethreedifferentapproaches*objec-tivism,constructivism,andpostmodernism*arereviewedandanaly-zed.Asaresult,threedifferenttypesofauthenticity(objectiveauthenticity,constructiveorsymbolicauthenticity,andexistentialauthenticity)willbeclarified.Second,thepaperwillsuggestthat,inpostmodernconditions,bothobjectiveandconstructiveauthenticity,asobject-relatednotions,canonlyexplainalimitedrangeoftouristexperiences,whereasexistentialauthenticity,asactivity-relatedsitu-ation,isgermanetotheexplanationofagreatervarietyoftouristexperiences.Existentialauthenticityisfurtherclassifiedintotwodifferentdimensions:intra-personalandinter-personalauthenticity.AUTHENTICITYINTOURISMEXPERIENCEAuthenticityisatermgrownambiguousfromvariedusagesandcontexts(Golomb1995:7).AccordingtoTrilling,theoriginalusagewasinthemuseum,wherepersonsexpertinsuchmatterstestwhetherobjectsofartarewhattheyappeartobeorareclaimedtobe,andthereforeworththepricethatisaskedforthem*or,ifthishasalreadybeenpaid,worththeadmirationtheyarebeinggiven(1972:93).Thistermwasalsoborrowedtorefertohumanexistenceand{{thepeculiarnatureofourfallencondition,ouranxietyoverthecredibilityofexistenceandofindividualexistence||(Trilling1972:93).Forexam-ple,Rosseauusedthewordauthenticitytorefertotheexistentialconditionofbeing,andheregardedsocietyasthemajorcausethatdestroyedit.However,itismainlyitsmuseum-linkedusagewhichhasbeenextendedtotourism.Forexample,productsoftourismsuchasworksofart,festivals,rituals,cuisine,dress,housing,andsoonareusuallydescribedas{{authentic||or{{inauthentic||intermsofthecriterionofwhethertheyaremadeorenacted{{bylocalpeopleaccordingtocustomortradition||.[Andinthissense],{{authenticityconnotestraditionalcultureandorigin,asenseofthegenuine,therealortheNINGWANG351unique||(Sharpley1994:130).However,theextensionofthismuseum-linkedusagetotourismsimplifiesthecomplexnatureofauthenticityintouristexperiences.Firstofall,theissueofauthenticityintourismcanbedifferentiatedintotwoseparateissues:thatoftouristexperiences(orauthenticexperiences)andthatoftouredobjects.Whilethesearetwoseparateaspectsofauthenticity,theyareoftenconfusedasone.HandlerandSaxton(1988:243)noticethisdistinctionwhentheypointoutthat{{Anauthenticexperience...isoneinwhichindividualsfeelthemselvestobeintouchbothwitha{real|worldandwiththeir{real|selves||(1988:243).Selwyn(1996a)goesonestepfurthertolinktheexperienceofa{{real||worldto{{authenticityasknowledge||*namely,{{cool||authenticity*andtorelatetheexperienceofa{{real||selfto{{authenticityasfeeling||*namely,{{hot||authenticity.However,itwouldbewrongtoproposethattheemotionalexperienceofthe{{real||self({{hotauthenticity||)necessarilyentails,coincideswith,orresultsfromtheepistemologicalexperienceofa{{real||worldoutthere({{coolauthenticity||),asifthelatteristhesolecauseoftheformer(effect).Aswillbeshown,thisdifferentiationof{{theauthenticityofexperi-ences||from{{theauthenticityoftouredobjects||iscrucialforintro-ducing{{existentialauthenticity||asanalternativesourceofauthenticexperiences.Certaintouredobjects,suchasnature,areinastrictsenseirrelevanttoauthenticityinMacCannell|ssense.However,nat-uretourismissurelyoneofthemajorwaysofexperiencinga{{real||self.Thatistosay,whatnaturetourisminvolvesisanexistentialauthenticityratherthantheauthenticityofobjects.Second,thecomplexnatureofauthenticityintourismisexhibitedinthefactthatitcanbefurtherclassifiedintoobjective,constructive,andexistentialauthenticity(Table1).Objectiveauthenticityinvolvesamuseum-linkedusageoftheauthenticityoftheoriginalsthatarealsothetouredobjectstobeperceivedbytourists.Itfollowsthattheauthenticexperienceiscausedbytherecognitionofthetouredobjectsasauthentic.Assuch,thereisanabsoluteandobjectivecriterionusedtomeasureauthenticity.Thus,eventhoughthetouriststhemselvesthinktheyhavegainedauthenticexperiences,thiscan,however,stillbejudgedasinauthentic,ifthetouredobjectsare{{infact||false,contrived,orwhatMacCannell(1973)calls{{stagedauthenticity||.Byconstructiveauthenticityitismeanttheresultofsocialconstruction,notanobjectivelymeasurablequalityofwhatisbeingvisited.Thingsappearauthenticnotbecausetheyareinherentlyauthenticbutbecausetheyareconstructedassuchintermsofpointsofview,beliefs,perspectives,orpowers.Thisnotionisthusrelative,negotiable(Cohen1988),contextuallydetermined(Salamone1997),andevenideological(Silver1993).Itcanbetheprojectionofone|sdreams,stereotypedimages,andexpectationsontotouredobjects(Bruner1991;Silver1993).Inthissense,whatthetouristquestsforissymbolicauthenticity(Culler1981).Hereabigdistinctionarises.Unlikebothobjectiveandconstructive(orsymbolic)authenticitieswhichinvolvewhetherandhowthetouredobjectsareauthentic,existentialexperi-enceinvolvespersonalorintersubjectivefeelingsactivatedbytheliminalprocessoftouristactivities.Insuchaliminalexperience,peoplefeeltheythemselvesaremuchmoreauthenticandmorefreely352RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYTable1.ThreeTypesofAuthenticityinTouristExperiencesObject-RelatedAuthenticityinTourismObjectiveauthenticityreferstotheauth-enticityoforiginals.Correspondingly,authenticexperiencesintourismareequatedtoanepistemologicalexperi-ence(i.e.,cognition)oftheauthenticityoforiginals.Activity-RelatedAuthenticityinTourismExistentialauthenticityreferstoapoten-tialexistentialstateofBeingthatistobeactivatedbytouristactivities.Cor-respondingly,authenticexperiencesintourismaretoachievethisactivatedexis-tentialstateofBeingwithintheliminalprocessoftourism.Existentialauth-enticitycanhavenothingtodowiththeauthenticityoftouredobjects.Constructiveauthenticityreferstotheauthenticityprojectedontotouredobjectsbytouristsortourismproducersintermsoftheirimagery,expectations,preferences,beliefs,powers,etc.Therearevariousversionsofauthenticitiesregardingthesameobjects.Cor-respondingly,authenticexperiencesintourismandtheauthenticityoftouredobjectsareconstitutiveofoneanother.Inthissense,theauthenticityoftouredobjectsisinfactsymbolicauthenticity.self-expressedthanineverydaylife,notbecausetheyfindthetouredobjectsareauthenticbutsimplybecausetheyareengaginginnon-ordinaryactivities,freefromtheconstraintsofthedaily.Thus,ana-lyticallyspeaking,inadditiontoobjectiveandconstructiveauth-enticities,theexistentialauthenticityisadistinctivesourceofauthenticexperiencesintourism.Unliketheobject-relatedcasewhichistheattribute,ortheprojectedattribute,ofobjects,existentialauthenticityisapotentialexistentialstateofBeingwhichistobeactivatedbytouristactivities.Inthissense,theexistentialversioncanalsobeunderstoodasakindofwhatBrown(1996)callsan{{authenticallygoodtime||.This,asactivity-relatedauthenticity,isthuslogicallydistinguishablefromtheobject-relatedcase(Table1).TheApproachofObjectivismInhisnostalgiccritiqueofmasstourismintermsofheroictravelinthepast,Boorstin(1964)condemnedmasstourismas{{pseudo-events||,whichwerebroughtaboutbythecommoditizationofcultureandtheassociatedhomogenizationandstandardizationoftouristexperiences.ForBoorstin,undercommoditization,notonlyaretouristattractionscontrivedscenesorpseudo-events,butalsothe{{touristseldomlikestheauthentic...productoftheforeignculture;heprefershisownprovincialexpectations||(1964:106).Thetourististhusgull-ible;{{heispreparedtoberuledbythelawofpseudo-events,byNINGWANG353whichtheimage,thewell-contrivedimitation,outshinestheoriginal||(1964:107;theemphasisadded).Obviously,Boorstin|sconceptof{{pseudo-events||impliesaconceptofobjectiveauthenticity.Thisisthustheauthenticityofthe{{original||,andtouristexperiencesarekindsofpseudo-eventsbecausetouristsareseldomabletoseethroughtheinauthenticityofcontrivedattractions(forasimilarviewseeDovey1985;Fussell1980).WhereasBoorstinscornsmasstourismandmasstourists,hiscriticssuchasMacCannellrestorethesacrednessandquasi-pilgrimagesig-nificanceofthemotivation.BasedonGoffman|s(1959)differentiationofthe{{frontregion||fromthe{{backregion||,MacCannellpointsoutthatthe{{concernofmodernsfortheshallownessoftheirlivesandinauthenticityoftheirexperiencesparallelsconcernsforthesacredinprimitivesociety||(1973:589Ð590).Itisthusjustifiedfortouriststo{{searchforauthenticityofexperience||(1973:589).However,accord-ingtoMacCannell,thereisincreasinglyacontradictionbetweenthetourist|sdemandforauthenticity(relatedtoabackregion)andthestagedauthenticityintouristspace.{{Itisalwayspossiblethatwhatistakentobeentryintoabackregionisreallyentryintoafrontregionthathasbeentotallysetupinadvancefortouristicvisitation||(1973:597).AsSelwynindicates,MacCannellusesauthenticityintwodifferentsenses:authenticityasfeelingandasknowledge(1996a:6Ð7).Indeed,whenMacCannellpointsoutthatthetourisminvolves{{thesearchforauthenticityofexperience||orfor{{authenticexperience||,histouristsareconcernedwiththestateofauthenticfeelings.However,whenherefersto{{stagedauthenticity||,thenhistouriststurntoquestfortheauthenticityoforiginalsandconsequentlybecomethevictimsofstagedauthenticity.Thus,theirexperiencescannotbecountedasauthenticevenifthetouriststhemselvesmightthinktheyhaveachievedsuchexperiences.Whatisimpliedhereisaconceptionofobjectiveauthenticity(similarviewon{{stagedauthenticity||canalsobefoundinDuncan1978).BothBoorstinandMacCannellinsistonamuseum-linkedandobjectivistconceptionofauthenticitywhenpseudo-eventsorstagedauthenticityisreferredto.Touristicsearchforauthenticexperiencesisthusnomorethananepistemologicalexperienceoftouredobjectswhicharefoundtobeauthentic.Thekeypointatissueis,however,thatauthenticityisnotamatterofblackorwhite,butratherinvolvesamuchwiderspectrum,richinambiguouscolors.Thatwhichisjudgedasinauthenticorstagedauthenticitybyexperts,intellectuals,orelitemaybeexperiencedasauthenticandrealfromanemicperspective*thismaybetheverywaythatmasstouristsexperienceauthenticity.Thus,arevisionistpositionoccursinresponsetothecomplexandconstructivenatureofauthenticity,thatis,construc-tivism.ConstructivismApproachToviewauthenticityastheoriginalortheattributeoftheoriginalistoosimpletocaptureitscomplexity.Thus,authenticityinMac-354RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYCannell|ssensehasbeenquestionedbymanycommentators(Bruner1989:113;Cohen1988:378;HandlerandLinnekin1984:286;Lanfant1989:188;Spooner1986:220Ð221;Wood1993:58).AccordingtoBruner(1994),authenticityhasfourdifferentmeanings.First,itreferstothe{{historicalverisimilitude||ofrepresentation.Thisistheauthenticreproductionwhichresemblestheoriginalandthuslookcredibleandconvincing.Forinstance,the1990sNewSalemresemblesthe1830sNewSalemwhereAbrahamLincolnlived.Second,authenticitymeansgenuine,historicallyaccurate,andimmaculatesimulation.Inboththefirstandthesecondsenseitinvolvesthenatureofacopyorreproductionratherthantheoriginal.Museumprofessionalsuseauthenticityprimarilyinthefirstsense,butsometimesinthesecond.Third,authenticity{{meansoriginals,asopposedtoacopy;butinthissense,noreproductioncouldbeauthentic,bydefinition||(Bruner1994:400).Four,thetermreferstoauthorityorpowerwhichautho-rizes,certifies,andlegallyvalidatesauthenticity.Forexample,NewSalemisauthentic,asitistheauthoritativereproductionofNewSalem,theonelegitimizedbythestateofIllinois.ThereisonlyoneofficiallyreconstructedNewSalem,theoneapprovedbythestategovernment(Bruner1994:400).Thus,asauthenticityinvolvesarangeofdifferentmeanings,toconfineittotheoriginalsisoversimplistic.Asaresponseandrevision,thedisciplesofconstructivismtreatitassocialconstruction.Constructivismisnotacoherentdoctrine.Itissometimesusedinterchangeablywith{{constructionism||.Despitetheirsimilarities,thelatterstressesthesocialorintersubjectiveprocessinconstructionofknowledgeandreality,andisoftenusedinconjunctionwithsocial*i.e.,{{socialconstructionism||(cf.BergerandLuckmann1971;Gergen1985;GergenandGergen1991).Forthesakeofsimplicity,inthediscussionbelow,thiswillbeseenasasub-perspectiveofconstruc-tivism.Thereisnospaceheretorehearsethehistoryofconstructivismanditsvariants.However,certainbasiccharacteristicsofcon-structivismcanbeidentified(foradetaileddiscussion,seeSchwandt1994).Itsontologicalassumptionisthat{{thereisnounique{realworld|thatpreexistsandisindependentofhumanmentalactivityandhumansymboliclanguage||(J.Bruner1986;quotedinSchwandt1994:125).Realityisratherbestseenastheresultsoftheversionsofourinterpretationsandconstructions.Itisthuspluralisticandplastic.Further,constructivistsholdapluralisticandrelativistepistemologyandmethodology.Itisclaimedthatthevalidityofknowledgeisnottobefoundintherelationshipofcorrespondencetoanindependentlyexistingworld.Onthecontrary,{{whatwetaketobeobjectiveknowl-edgeandtruthistheresultofperspective.Knowledgeandtrutharecreated,notdiscoveredbymind||(Schwandt1994:125).Forcon-structivists,multipleandpluralmeaningsofandaboutthesamethingscanbeconstructedfromdifferentperspectives,andpeoplemayadoptdifferentconstructedmeaningsdependentontheparticularcontextualsituationorintersubjectivesetting.ThisgeneralconstructivistperspectiveisappliedbyE.Bruner(1994),Cohen(1988),HobsbawnandRanger(1983),andothers,NINGWANG355totheissueofauthenticity.E.Bruner(1994:407)clearlylabelshistreatmentofauthenticityas{{constructivistperspective||.Althoughtheremaybedifferencesamongtheholdersofconstructivism,afewcommonviewpointsonauthenticityintourismcanbenoted.One,thereisnoabsoluteandstaticoriginalororiginonwhichtheabsoluteauthenticityoforiginalsrelies.{{Weallentersocietyinthemiddle,andcultureisalwaysinprocess||(E.Bruner1994:407).Two,astheapproachofthe{{inventionoftradition||(HobsbawnandRanger1983)shows,originsortraditionsarethemselvesinventedandconstructedintermsofthecontextswhereoneisandintermsoftheneedsofthepresent.Furthermore,theconstructionoftraditionsororiginsinvolvespowerandhenceasocialprocess.AsBrunerputsit,{{Nolongerisauthenticityapropertyinherentinanobject,foreverfixedintime;itisseenasastruggle,asocialprocess,inwhichcompetinginterestsarguefortheirowninterpretationofhistory||(1994:408)Three,authenticityorinauthenticityisaresultofhowoneseesthingsandofhis/herperspectivesandinterpretations.Thus,theexperienceofauthenticityispluralistic,relativetoeachtouristtypewhomayhavetheirownwayofdefinition,experience,andinterpretationofauthenticity(cf.Littrelletal1993;PearceandMoscardo1985,1986;Redfoot1984).Inthissense,ifmasstouristsempathicallyexperiencethetouredobjectsasauthentic,then,theirviewpointsarerealintheirownright,nomatterwhetherexpertsmayproposeanoppositeviewfromanobjectiveperspective(Cohen1988).Four,withrespecttodifferentculturesorpeoplesthataretobetoured,authenticityisalabelattachedtothevisitedculturesintermsofstereotypedimagesandexpectationsheldbythemembersoftourist-sendingsociety.Cullerdemonstratesthisfromasemioticperspective.Forexample,whatistherealJapanesenessiswhathasbeenmarked;however,whatislocatedinJapanwithoutbeingmarkedisinasensenottherealJapanesenessandhencenotworthseeing(Culler1981:133).Authenticityisthusaprojectionoftourists|ownbeliefs,expectations,preferences,stereotypedimages,andcon-sciousnessontotouredobjects,particularlyontotouredOthers(Adams1984;Bruner1991;Duncan1978;Laxson1991;Silver1993).AsBrunerputsit,tourists|authenticexperiencesarenotbasedonanyrealassessmentofthenativessuchasNewGuineans,butrather{{aprojectionfromWesternconsciousness||.Accordingtohim,{{West-erntouristsarenotpayingthousandsofdollarstoseechildrendieinEthiopia;theyarepayingtoseethenoblesavage,afigmentoftheirimagination||(Bruner1991:243,241).Five,eventhoughsomethingcaninitiallybe{{inauthentic||or{{artificial||,itmaysubsequentlybecome{{emergentauthenticity||withthepassageoftime.SuchisthecaseofDisneylandorDisneyWorld(Cohen1988:380).Infiniteretreatof{{now||willeventuallymakeanythingthathappensauth-entic.Thisisthusanemergingprocess.Inaddition,authenticityisalsocontext-bound.ThroughanexaminationofthetwoSanAngelInns,theoriginalinMexicoCityandits{{daughter||innatDisneyWorld,Florida,Salamone(1997)claimsthatbothversionsoftheSanAngelInnareauthentic,eachinitsownway,andeachmakessenseagainstitsowncontext.356RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYIneffect,forconstructivists,touristsareindeedinsearchofauth-enticity;however,whattheyquestforisnotobjectiveauthenticity(i.e.,authenticityasoriginals)butsymbolicauthenticitywhichistheresultofsocialconstruction.Thetouredobjectsorothersareexperi-encedasauthenticnotbecausetheyareoriginalsorreality,butbecausetheyareperceivedasthesignsorsymbolsofauthenticity(Culler1981).Symbolicauthenticityhaslittletodowithrealityoutthere.Itismoreoftenthannotaprojectionofcertainstereotypedimagesheldandcirculatedwithintourist-sendingsocieties,par-ticularlywithinthemassmediaandtourismmarketingdocumentsofWesternsocieties(Britton1979;Silver1993).PostmodernismApproachesPostmodernismisnotasingle,unified,andwell-integratedapproach.Rather,itisconceivablethatadiversityofpostmodernviewsorapproachesexist(Hollinshead1997).However,withregardtotheissueofauthenticityintourism,theapproachesofpostmodernismseemtobecharacterizedbydeconstructionofauthenticity.WhilemodernistresearcherssuchasBoorstin(1964)andMacCannell(1973,1976)wereconcernedwithpseudo-eventsorstagedauthenticityinthetouristspace,postmodernistresearchersdonotconsiderinauth-enticityaproblem.UmbertoEco|s(1986)writingon{{hyperreality||representsatypicalpostmodernistpositioninregardtotheissueofauthenticityintour-ism.Indeed,Ecototallydeconstructstheconceptionofauthenticitythroughdestructuringtheboundariesbetweenthecopyandtheorig-inal,orbetweensignandreality(boundariesonwhichthewholeissueofBoorstin|sandMacCannell|sobjectiveauthenticityrelies).ForEco,themosttypicalmodelofhyperrealitycanbeillustratedbytheexampleofDisneylandorDisneyWorld,fortheyarebornoutoffantasyandimagination.Thus,itisirrelevantwhetheritis{{eitherrealorfalse||,sincethereisnooriginalthatcanbeusedasareference.BasedonEco|sideaofhyperreality,theFrenchpostmodernistwriterBaudrillard(1983)borrowstheconcept{{simulacrum||fromPlatotoexplaindifferentculturalordersinhistory.AccordingtoBaudrillard(1983:83),therearethreehistorical{{ordersofsimulacra||whichrefertodifferentrelationshipsbetweensimulacraand{{thereal||.ThefirstorderemergesintheperiodfromtheRenaissancetothebeginningoftheindustrialrevolution.Thedominantsimulacrumofthisperiodis{{counterfeit||whichindicatestheemergenceofrep-resentation.The{{production||asthesecondorderappearedintheindustrialera,whichindicatesthepotentialforinfiniteexacttechnicalreproductionandreproducibilityofthesameobject.Thethirdissimulation,whichreferstothecontemporarycondition.Inthisworld,accordingtoBaudrillard,one{{live[s]bythemodeofreferendumpreciselybecausethereisnolongeranyreferential||.This{{con-tradictoryprocessoftrueandfalse,ofrealandtheimaginary,isabolished...||.Today|sworldisasimulationwhichadmitsnooriginals,noorigins,no{{real||referentbutthe{{metaphysicofthecode||(Bau-drillard1983:116,122,103).LikeEco,BaudrillardalsousesDisneylandasachiefexampleofsimulation.NINGWANG357InadiscussionofthecultureofDisney,Fjellmanargues:Theconceptsofrealandfake,however,aretooblunttocapturethesub-tletiesofDisneysimulations.AtWDWthingsarenotjustrealorfakebutrealreal,fakereal,realfake,andfakefake(1992:255).Therefore,inWDW,thereisnoabsoluteboundarybetweentherealandthefake.Therealmayturnintothefakeandviceversa.The{{Disneyplanistojuxtaposetherealandthefake||,andthe{{linesbetweentherealandthefakearesystematicallyblurred||(Fjellman1992:255).Impliedintheapproachofpostmodernismisthejustificationofthecontrived,thecopy,andimitation.OneofthemostinterestingresponsestothispostmodernculturalconditionisCohen|srecentjustificationof{{contrived||attractionsintourism.Accordingtohim,postmoderntouristshavebecomelessconcernedwiththeauthenticityoftheoriginal.Cohenidentifiestworeasons.First,iftheculturalsanctionofmoderntouristshasbeenthe{{questforauthenticity||,thentheculturalsanctionofthepostmoderntourististhatofa{playfulsearchforenjoyment||oran{{aestheticenjoymentofsurfaces||.Second,thepostmoderntouristbecomesmorereflexiveontheimpactoftourismuponfragilehostcommunity.{{Stagedauthenticity||thushelpstoprotectafragiletouredcultureandcommunityfrombeingdisturbedbecauseitactsasa{{substitute||forthe{{original||andhencekeepstouristsoutoffragiletouredcultureandcommunity(Cohen1995:16,21,17).Actually,moderntechnologycanmaketheinauthenticlookmoreauthentic(Fjellman1992).Forexample,thetapeswhichrecordedbirdsingingcanbeplayedintaperecordersrepeatedlyandinacertainfrequencydesiredbyparkmanagers.Thiscanmakebirdsingingsoundmoreauthenticthantheactualbirdsingingsincethelatterisinfluencedbytheuncertaintyofwhentheyarepresentandmightsing.AsMcCrone,MorrisandKielyputit,Authenticityandoriginalityare,aboveall,mattersoftechnique...Whatisinterestingtopostmodernistsaboutheritageisthatrealitydependsonhowconvincingthepresentationis,howwellthe{{stagedauthenticity||works...Themore{{authentic||therepresentation,themore{{real||itis||(1995:46).Thus,thequestforthe{{genuinefakes||(Brown1996)orinauth-enticityisjustifiableinpostmodernconditions.InRitzerandLiska|sterms,AccustomedtothesimulateddiningexperienceatMacDonald|s,thetouristisgenerallynotapttowanttoscrabbleforfoodatthecampfire,ortosurviveonnutsandberriespickedonawalkthroughthewoods.Thelattermaybe{{authentic||,buttheyareawfullydifficult,uncomfortable,andunpre-dictableincomparisontoamealatalocalfast-foodrestaurantorinthediningroomofahotelthatispartofaninternationalchain.Mostproductsofapostmodernworldmightbewillingtoeatatthecampfire,aslongasitisasimulatedoneonthelawnofthehotel.Thus,wewouldargue,incontrasttoMacCannell,thatmanytouriststodayareinsearchofinauthenticity(1997:107).358RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYBothconstructivistsandpostmodernistsrevealthecrisisoftheauthenticityoftheoriginal(objectiveauthenticity).However,thelatteraremuchmoreradicalthantheformer.Constructivistsarereluctanttodigatombfor{{authenticity||andtheytrytorescuethetermbyrevisingitsmeanings;posmodernistshaveburiedit.Indeed,withtheacceleratingglobalizationunderpostmodernconditions,itisincreasinglydifficultfortheauthenticityoftheoriginalsuchasthemarginalethnicculturetoremainimmutable.Forposmodernists,goneisthe{{authenticityoftheoriginal||.Thus,itisnowonderthattheyabandontheconceptofauthenticityaltogether.Moreover,theyjustifytheinauthenticityintouristspace.However,apostmodernistdeconstructionoftheauthenticityoftheoriginalimplicitlypavesthewaytodefineexistentialauthenticityasanalternativeexperienceintourism,despitethatposmoderniststhemselvesrefusetoexplorethispossibility.ExistentialAuthenticityTherehasbeenalongtraditionofontologicalconceptionofexis-tentialauthenticity(Berger1973;Berman1970;Golomb1995;Heid-deger1962;Taylor1991;Trilling1972),rangingfromKierkegaard,Nietzsche,Heidegger,Sartre,toCamus(Golomb1995).Existentialauthenticityhasalsobeenalong-termpoliticalconcern,whichdatesbacktoMontesquieuandRousseau(Berman1970;Trilling1972).Incommonsenseterms,existentialauthenticitydenotesaspecialstateofBeinginwhichoneistruetooneself,andactsasacounterdosetothelossof{{trueself||inpublicrolesandpublicspheresinmodernWesternsociety(Berger1973).AccordingtoHeidegger(1962),toaskaboutthemeaningofBeingistolookforthemeaningofauthenticity.Indeed,thereareanumberofresearcherswhohavediscussedtherelevanceofsuchanexistentialauthenticitytotouristexperiences.Forexample,TurnerandManningcriticizetheviewthat{{auth-enticityisathing-likesocialfact,atonceapropertyorcharacteristicofbothactorsandsettings||.Tothem,authenticityisonlypossibleoncethetaken-for-grantedworldandthesecur-ityitoffersarecalledintoquestion.Thisisdependentonaspecificmood*anxiety*which,insubjectingeverydaynesstoquestioning,revealsthegroundlessnessofhumanexistence(1988:137).TurnerandManningclearlyshowthesuitabilityofapplyingexis-tentialphilosophers|,suchasHeidegger|s,ontologicalnotionofauth-enticitytotouristexperiences.However,theyfailtotakeafurthersteptodevelopit.Afterquestioningthevalidityoftheconventionalconceptofauthenticity,Hughesalsosuggeststhat{{authenticitymustberethought||,andthat{{onemustturntoaqualifiedexistentialperspectivetorecoverauthenticityinlatemodernism||(Hughes1995:790,796).Neumann(1992)hintsatanexistentialauthenticityinhiscasestudyoftouristexperiencesintheCannonValleyintheUnitedStates:NINGWANGTraveloftenprovidessituationsandcontextswherepeopleconfrontalter-nativepossibilitiesforbelongingtotheworldandothersthatdifferfromeverydaylife.Indeed,partofthepromiseoftravelistoliveandknowtheselfinotherways(1992:183).359Asalreadynoted,Selwyn(1996a)drawsagroundbreakingdistinctionbetween{{hotauthenticity||and{{coolauthenticity||.His{{hotauth-enticity||,inrelationtomythsoftheauthenticself,isaspecificexpressionofexistentialversion.Thisbecomesmoreevidentwhenhereferstoauthenticityasthe{{alienation-smashingfeeling||.Similarly,whatBrown(1996)calls{{authentically...hedonistic...goodtime||illustratesthetemporalcharacteristicofexistentialauthenticity.Thus,existentialauthenticity,unlikeobject-relatedversion,canoftenhavenothingtodowiththeissueofwhethertouredobjectsarereal.Insearchoftouristexperiencewhichisexistentiallyauthentic,touristsarepreoccupiedwithanexistentialstateofBeingactivatedbycertaintouristactivities.Toputitanotherway,existentialexperienceistheauthenticityofBeingwhich,asapotential,istobesubjectivelyorintersubjectivelysampledbytouristsastheprocessoftourismunfoldsDaniel|s(1996)danceperformancecanbeusedtoexemplifyexistentialauthenticity.Linkedtotourismdanceperformance,suchasrumbainCuba,itisderivedfromtourists|participationintheeventratherthanfrommerelybeingspectatorsofit.Manytouristsaredrawnintoparticipationbytheamiablefeelings,socia-bility,andthemusicalandkinestheticelementsofdanceperformance.Often,notknowingtherules,theydonotwaittobeinvitedtodance,butspontaneouslyjoinin.Theyexploretheirrhythmic,harmonic,andphysicalpotentialandarriveatsensationsofwellbeing,pleasure,joy,orfun,andattimes,frustrationaswell.Astouristsassociatethesesentimentswithdancing,thedanceper-formancetransformstheirreality.Formanytourists,thedancebecomestheirentireworldatthatparticularmoment.Timeandtensionsaresuspended.Thediscrepanciesoftherealworldarepostponed.Asper-formingdancers,touristsaccessthemagicalworldofliminalitywhichoffersspiritualandaestheticnourishment.Tourism,inmomentsofdanceper-formance,opensthedoortoaliminalworldthatgivesrelieffromday-to-day,ordinarytensions,and,forCubandancersanddancingtouristsparticularly,permitsindulgenceinnear-ecstaticexperiences(1996:789).Here,ifrumbaistreatedonlyasatouredobject(spectacle),thenitinvolvesobjectiveauthenticityinMacCannell|ssense;thatis,itsauthenticityliesinthefactofwhetheritisare-enactmentofthetraditionalrumba.However,onceitisturnedintoakindoftouristactivity,itconstitutesanalternativesourceofauthenticity(i.e.,exis-tentialauthenticity)whichhasnothingtodowiththeissuesofwhetherthisdanceistheexactre-enactmentofthetraditionaldance.Inreality,asDanielfoundout,thenewelements,thatis,creativity,arealwaysintegratedintotheoldrumba.Thus,eventhoughthismaybeinauthenticorcontrivedinMacCannell|ssense,itgeneratesasenseofexistentialauthenticityduetoitscreativeandcatharticnature.However,aquestionariseswithregardtoexistentialauthenticity.Asmentionedabove,thenotioninitscommonsenserefersto{{oneis360RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYtruetooneself||.Thismayseemalittleoddatfirstglance,because{{beingtrueorfalse||isusuallyanepistemologicalissue,whichisacriterionusedtojudgethenatureofutterance,statements,theories,orknowledge.Howcantheselfalsoberelatedtotheissueof{{beingtrueorfalse||?Surely,thejustificationcannotbemadeinepis-temologicalterms.Rather,onecanmakesenseofthequestforauth-enticselfonlyintermsoftheidealofauthenticityarisingwithinmodernsocieties.Thisisformulatedinresponsetotheambivalenceoftheexistentialconditionsofmodernity.Itemergesasareactionto{{thedisintegrationofsincerity||orpretension,anditsoccurrenceiscloselyrelatedtothefeelingofalossof{{realself||inpublicroles(Berger1973:82).Theidealofauthenticitycanbecharacterizedbyeithernostalgiaorromanticism.Itisnostalgicbecauseitidealizesthewaysoflifeinwhichpeoplearesupposedasfreer,moreinnocent,morespontaneous,purer,andtruertothemselvesthanusual(suchwaysoflifeareusuallysupposedtoexistinthepastorinchildhood).Peoplearenostalgicaboutthesewaysoflifebecausetheywanttore-livethemintheformoftourismatleasttemporally,empathically,andsymbolically.Itisalsoromanticbecauseitaccentsthenaturalness,sentiments,andfeelingsinresponsetotheincreasingself-constraintsbyreasonandrationalityinmodernity.Therefore,asacontrasttotheeverydayroles,thetouristroleislinkedtotheidealofauthenticity.Tourismisthusregardedasasimpler,freer,morespontaneous,moreauthentic,orlessserious,lessutilitarian,andromantic,lifestylewhichenablespeopletokeepadistancefrom,ortranscend,dailylives.Theexamplesincludecamping,picnicking,campfires,mountaineering,walk-about,wildernesssolitude,oradventures.Intheseactivitiestheydonotliterallyconcernthemselvesabouttheauthenticityoftouredobjectsatall.Theyareratherinsearchoftheirauthenticselveswiththeaidofactivitiesortouredobjects.However,somemaystillarguethattourismisnomorethananotherkindofconstraint(suchastheconstraintofschedules,itineraries,queuing,finances,etc.)andsocialcontrolexertedbyitsmanybusi-nessesororganizations,andthattheso-calledfreedomis*ifthereisany*onlyafantasyandillusion(Dann1996:73Ð79).Issuchacase,isthisexistentialauthenticityonlyanillusionorfantasy,andhenceinaccessibleinreality?Thepointisthattheemicperspective,ratherthanexternalperspective,ismoregermanetoanswerthisquestion.Surely,theexperienceinvolvesitsownconstraints.However,suchconstraintsareseenbytouristsasthenecessarycostofauthenticexperiences,farfrombeinganobstacletoexistentialauthenticity.Indeedthisintourismmaybeafantasy.Butsuchafantasyisarealone*itisafantasticfeeling.Despitebeingasubjective(orintersubjective)feeling,itisrealtoatouristandthusaccessibletohimorherintourism.Thisfantasticfeelingistheveryfeelingcharacterizatingexistentialauthenticity.Asenseof{{authenticself||involvesabalancebetweentwopartsofone|sBeing:reasonandemotion,self-constraintandspontaneity,LogosandEros,orwhatFreudcallsthe{{realityprinciple||andthe{{pleasureprinciple||(Wang1996).Toriskoversimplicity,tolivealifeintermsofthedictatesofemotions,feelings,spontaneity,orErosNINGWANG361ratherthanreasonorself-constraintsmaybecharacteristicofarela-tivelylargepartofprimitiveorpre-civilizedformsoflife.Freudarguesthattheoppositeisthecaseofcivilizedormoderntimes.However,asenseofinauthenticselfariseswhenthebalancebetweenthesetwopartsofbeingisbrokendowninsuchawaythatrationalfactorsover-controlnon-rationalfactors(emotion,bodilyfeeling,andspontaneity,etc.)andleavetoolittlespaceforsatisfactionofthelatter.Thisisthesituationcharacterizingtheambivalenceofthemainstreaminsti-tutionalrealmsofmodernity,inwhichthefactorsofLogosreinandthefactorsofErosaremoreorlessconstrained(Wang1996,1997b).Forexample,Hochschild|s(1983)empiricalstudyofhowAmericanflightattendantsare{{forced||topresentasmiletocustomerstypicallyillustrateshowtheylosetheirauthenticselvesintheserviceindustry.Thus,undertheconditionofmodernity,theauthenticselfemergesasanidealthatactstoresistorinvertthedominantrationalorderofthemainstreaminstitutionsinmodernity.Toresisttheinauthenticitystemmingfromthemainstreamorder,theauthenticselfisoftenthoughttobemoreeasilyrealizedorfulfilledinthespaceoutsidethedominantinstitutions,aspacewithitsculturalandsymbolicboundarieswhichdemarcatetheprofanefromthesacred(Graburn1989),responsibilitiesfromfreedom,workfromleisure,andtheinauthenticpublicrolefromtheauthenticself.Asaresult,nature,forexample,isseenastypicalofsuchaspace.Tourism,andnaturetourisminparticular,isthusaneffectivewayusedinsearchofauth-enticself.Ofcourse,suchaselfisonlyachievedinrelativeterms.Itisexperiencedonlywithina{{liminalzone||(Graburn1989;Turner1973),whereonekeepsadistancefromsocietalconstraints(pre-scriptions,obligations,workethic,etc.)andinverts,suspends,oraltersroutineorderandnorms(Gottlieb1982;Lett1983;Shields1991).However,insodoing,onedoesnotgofarenoughtoabandonLogos(reason),socialorder,andsocialresponsibilitiesaltogether,moreover,oneisreadytocomehomeandadapttohomesocietyagain.Analyticallyspeaking,existentialauthenticitycanbedividedintotwodifferentdimensions.Oneisintra-personalandtheotherisinter-personalauthenticity.Eitherdimensioncanbeachievedbymeansoftourism.Intra-PersonalAuthenticity:BodilyFeelings.Obviously,theintra-per-sonaldimensionofexistentialauthenticityinvolvesthebodilyfeelings.Thebodyorthebodilyconcernhasrecentlyattractedwideacademicattention,partlyasareactiontothedominanceandlongevityoftheCartesianÐKantiantraditionwhichenhancesthestatusofmindattheexpenseofbody.Thebodilyconcernisalsothoughtofasanimportantaspectoftourism(VeijolaandJokinen1994).Relaxation,rehabilitation,diversion,recreation,entertainment,refreshment,sensation-seeking,sensualpleasures,excitement,play,andsoonarealltouristiccontents(Cohen1979b,1985;Lett1983;Mergen1986).Searchforsuchbodilypleasurealsoexhibitsthefeaturesofaritual,there-creationritual(Graburn1983:15).Roughlyspeaking,thebodilyconcernconsistsoftwoaspects:sensualandsymbolic.Whereasthelatterinvolvesthecultureorsign-systemofthebody(Featherstone,362RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYHepworthandTurner1991),theformerinvolvesbodilyfeelings.Ontheonehand,inrelationtothecultureofthebody,thebodybecomesa{{display||ofpersonalidentity,includinghealth,naturalness,youth,vigour,vitality,fitness,movement,beauty,energy,leisureclass,taste,distinction,romance,etc.(Bourdieu1984;Featherstone1991;Rojek1993).Ontheotherhand,thebodyistheprimaryorganofsensibilityorfeeling.Thus,itistheinnersourceoffeelingsandsensualpleasure.Assuch,thebodyisnotmerelyacorporatesubstance,butalsoa{{body-subject||orthe{{feeling-subject||(Seamon1979).Thebodyisabattlefield.Thecontrolandmanipulationofitgivesrisetopower(Foucault1977).Partofthepowerthatmodernityhasoverthebodycomesfromthesurveillanceofthepopulation(Giddens1990).Anotheraspectderivesfromtime-spacestructuresrelatingtoworkandthedivisionoflabor(Lefebvre1991).Itscommodificationentailsthedisciplinesoflabourandtheregularpresenceofthebody(itsbearer)incertainstructuredspatio-temporalareas(workdaysandworkspace).Inbothsituations,self-controlofbodilydrivesandimpulsesarenecessitated.Thepowerderivedfromthecontroloverthebodyinthelattercaseresultsinasenseofexistentialinauthenticity.Inotherwords,existentialinauthenticityoralienationisbothspiritualandbodily.Therefore,aconcernoverbodilyfeelingisinfactaconcernoverthebodily,orintra-personal,sourceoftheauthenticself.Thereisnobetterplacethenthebeachtoillustratethebodilyconcern.Ontheonehand,inthissetting,thebodyshowsthatitisrelaxedandnotlimitedbybodilycontrolorself-controlimposedbysocialstructuresorthesuperego.Ontheotherhand,thebodyaltersitsroutineexis-tenceandentersanalternative,yetintensified,experientialstate:recreation,diversion,entertainment,spontaneity,playfulness,orinshort,authenticityintheexistentialsense.Lefebvre|sdescriptionofthebodyonthebeachisworthquotingatlengthhere:Thebeachistheonlyplaceofenjoymentthatthehumanspecieshasdiscoveredinnature.Thankstoitssensoryorgans,fromthesenseofsmellandfromsexualitytosight(withoutanyspecialemphasisbeingplacedonthevisualsphere),thebodytendstobehaveasadifferentialfield.Itbehaves,inotherwords,asatotalbody,breakingoutofthetemporalandspatialshelldevelopedinresponsetolabor,tothedivisionoflabor,tothelocalizingofworkandthespecializationofplaces.Initstendency,thebodyassertsitselfmore(andbetter)as{{subject||andas{{object||thanas{{subjectivity||(intheclassicalphilosophicalsense)andas{{objectivity||(fragmentedineveryway,distortedbythevisual,byimages,etc.)(1991:384).Thus,abeachholidayillustratesthebodilysourceoftheauthenticself.Whereasinlaborandthedivisionoflaborthebodyistheobjectofself-control,self-constraint,andorganizationalmanipulation,intourismthebodybecomes{{subject||initsownright.Thatistosay,tourisminvolvesabodilyexperienceofpersonalauthenticity.Intourism,sensualpleasures,feelings,andotherbodilyimpulsesaretoarelativelylargeextentreleasedandconsumedandthebodilydesires(fornaturalamenities,sexualfreedom,andspontaneity)aregratifiedintensively.Inshort,alltheseaspectsoftourismconstituteanonto-NINGWANG363logicalmanifestoforpersonalauthenticity.However,suchbodilysour-cesofauthenticselfcanonlybeexploredforarelativelyshortperiodoftime,andalsoberealizedaspeakexperienceswithcertainbodilyconstraintsrelatingtojourneyasanecessarycost.Theyexistastheattractivenessofholidaymakingjustbecauseoftheirnonordinarynature.Inturn,thissituationservestorestoretheorderofeverydaylifethatthemainstreaminstitutionsofmodernityentail.Intra-PersonalAuthenticity:Self-Making.Thetouristicexperiencesofintra-personalauthenticityinvolve{{self-making||orself-identity.Self-makingisanimplicitdimensionunderlyingthemotivationfortourism,particularlyfortravelingoffthebeatentrack(e.g.,adven-ture).Formanyindividuals,workandeverydayrolesimposecon-strainingandmonotonousroutineinwhichindividualsfinditdifficulttopursuetheirself-realization.Laschclaimsmodernityhasration-alizedalmostallhumanactivities,andthisactionleave[s]littleroomforthespiritofarbitraryinventionorthedispositiontoleavethingstochance.Risk,daring,anduncertainty*importantcom-ponentsofplay*havenoplaceinindustryorinactivitiesinfiltratedbyindustrialstandards,whichseekpreciselytopredictandcontrolthefutureandtoeliminaterisk(1979:102).Consequently,suchroutinizationandover-predictabilitygivesrisetothe{{feelingofloss||(Giddens1990:98).Thus,ifthoseindividualscannotrealizetheirauthenticselvesineverydaylife,thentheyareliabletoturntotourismoritsadventureforminordertoreachthisgoal(ofcoursethisdoesnotimplythatnobodycanrealizeself-fulfilmentinworkorroutinelife).Forexample,mountaineersfindtheiralternativeselvesbychallengingthemountainstheyclimbandmatchingthesewiththeirabilities.Thesechallenges,rareineverydaylife,leadtothetrialoftheself.Thus,throughovercomingthesechallengesanewselfismade,whichisexhibitedinthe{{flow||experi-ence(Csikszentmihalyi1975)stemmingfrommountain-climbing(Mitchell1988).Asimilarexperienceisalsoexemplifiedbyoceancruisinginwhichcruisers{{forsakethesecurityandsafetyofland-basedlifefortheformidablechallengesofoceanandweather||(Mac-beth1988:214),andthusattemptself-creationthroughseekingsuit-ablechallengesfoundinnatureandfromadventures(Macbeth1988).Indeed,manyindividualsaredissatisfiedwiththemundanequalityoftheireverydaylifeandthusseekextra-mundaneexperiencesfromadventures(Vester1987).Asaresult,adventurebecomes{{aformofleisure||(Vester1987).Adventure{{playsasignificantpartinpro-vidinganopportunitytocompensatefortheboredomandlackofauthenticityfeltinordinarylife||.Itisa{{sensualtranscendence||ofroutinelife(Vester1987:238,239).Touristsalsoquestforinter-personalauthenticity.ToÃnnies|sthesisthatthe{{association||replaces{{community||impliestheendof{{socialauthenticity||(FornaÃs1995)or{{naturalsociality||(Maffesoli1996:80)whichisseenasacharacteristicofthetraditionaloremotionalcommunity.Inotherwords,inmodernity,thestructuralareassuchasthestateandmarketputanendto{{socialauthenticity||.364RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYIndeed,variousmodernculturalpracticesaimingatintimacy,friend-ship,orsocialitycanberegardedasactionsagainsttheinauthenticityofinstitutionalmodernityandasaquestforinter-personalauth-enticity.Forexample,Maffesoli(1996)hasdescribedhowvariouscontemporarycultural{{tribes||aresearchingfortheexperiencesofthe{{emotionalcommunity||(i.e.,akindofexistentialauthenticityinvolvedinthedimensionofinter-humanrelationships).TouristsarenotmerelysearchingforauthenticityoftheOther.Theyalsosearchfortheauthenticityof,andbetween,themselves.Thetouredobjectsortourismcanbejustameansormediumbywhichtouristsarecalledtogether,andthen,anauthenticinter-personalrelationshipbetweenthemselvesisexperiencedsubsequently.Inter-PersonalAuthenticity:FamilyTies.Familytourismisatypicalexampleofexperiencinginter-personalauthenticity.IfforBerger(1973:87)familyisamajorprivatesphereformodernindividualstoexperiencetheir{{trueselves||,thenfamilytourismisapeakandritualexperienceofsuchexistentiallyauthenticrelationships.Frommosttourists|personalpointofview,tourismoraholidayisitselfachancefortheprimarytouristgroup,suchasafamily,toachieveorreinforceasenseofauthentictogethernessandanauthentic{{we-relationship||.AsRousseaupointedout,therelationshipbetweenmotherandchildismostauthentic.Formanyfamilies,holidayistoasignificantextenttakenforthejoyofchildren,oris{{determinedbythewhimsandemergenciesofthechildren||(Stephen1990:152).Itisthusaritualcelebratingthisauthenticfamilyrelationship.Inrecreationaltourismonenotonlygainspleasantexperiencesfromseeingsights,events,orperformances,butalsosimultaneouslyexperi-encesintenselyauthentic,naturalandemotionalbonds,andarealintimacyinthefamilyrelationship.Inter-PersonalAuthenticity:TouristicCommunitas.Tourismalsogivesaccesstoauthenticallyexperienced{{communitas||inaTurneriansense.AccordingtoTurner(1973),whenpilgrimsmaketheirjourneytheyarelookingforthecenterthatisendowedwithmostsacredvaluesandchargedwithhighemotions.Theysimultaneouslyentercommunitas.Communitasischaracterizedby{{liminality||whichrefersto{{anyconditionoutsideorontheperipheriesofeverdaylife||(Turner1974:47),thatis,anyconditionthatisnotconcernedwithobligatorytasks(e.g.,economic,politicaltasks)ofeverydaylife.Com-munitasoccursasanunmediated,{{pure||inter-personalrelationshipamongpilgrimswhoconfrontoneanotherassocialequalsbasedontheircommonhumanity.Incommunitas,structuresfallapart,anddifferencesarisingoutoftheinstitutionalizedsocioeconomicandsociopoliticalpositions,roles,andstatusdisappear.Instead,apilgrimexperiences{{aspontaneousgeneratedrelationshipbetweenleveledandequaltotalandindividuated,humanbeings,strippedofstructuralattributes||,and{{knowsonlyharmoniesandnodisharmoniesorcon-flict||(Turner1973:216,221).Accordingtohim,whatissaidaboutthepilgrimistoalargeextentapplicabletothetourist,forthetourists|journeycan,inasense,beregardedasaformofriteofpassage,asaNINGWANG365quasi-pilgrimage(TurnerandTurner1978)(forasimilarviewseeGraburn1983,1989;MacCannell1973).Suchanexperienceofcom-munitasintourismisexemplifiedbyLett|s(1983)ethnographicstudyofcharteryachttourismintheCaribbean:Charteryachttouristsrarelymakereferencetotheirsocialoroccupationalstatusathome.Theytypicallyintroducethemselvestotheirfellowtouristsbytheirfirstnamesonly.Titlesofaddressareseldomused.Thecharteryachttouristshaveleftbehindmostofthepossessionsthattheycustomarilyusetoindicatetheirsocialandeconomicstatus,includingautomobiles,houses,clothing,andjewellery.IntheBritishVirginIslands,mostofthecharteryachttouristsmaintainequivalentlevelsofconsumption.Theyrentsimilaryachts,wearsimilarbathingsuits,shopinthesameprovisioningstores,andbuyfuelatthesamemarinas(1983:47Ð48).Insuchanambience,touristscaneasethemselvesofthepressuresstemmingfrominauthenticsocialhierarchyandstatusdistinctions.Rathertheyapproachoneanotherinanatural,friendly,andauthenticway.Lettcontinues,Thecharteryachttouristsexhibitnoneofthereluctancetoapproachandgreetstrangersthatiscommonlyassociatedwithmiddle-classU.S.society.Instead,charteryachttouristsareunguarded,open,andevenaggressivelyfriendlytowardsoneanother(1983:48).Totheextentthattourismsuppliespossibilitiesforcommunitas,tourismmakesitrelativelyeasyforpeopletomakenewfriends.InhisethnographicstudyofAmericantouristsvisitingIndonesia,Brunerobservesthattoexperiencefriendshipsofatourgroupis{{oneofthemostimportantthingsabouttheentireexperience||(1995:230).Thus,evenafterreturninghomefromthepackagetour,manymembersofthetourgroupcontinuedtokeepintouchwitheachotherandmain-taintheirfriendships.Indeed,apackagetoursuppliesarelaxedambi-enceandrelativelyconcentratedperiodoftimeforintensivesocialityandemotionalinteraction.Thisnotonlybringsaboutthepleasureofseeingexoticsights,butalsobringsaboutpleasureinseeingthesesightsinthecontextofthetourgroup(Bruner1995)orinthecompanyofothers(Urry1990).Inotherwords,thepleasureoftourismexistsnotonlyinseeingexoticthings,butalsoinsharingandcommunicatingthispleasurewithothertouristswhoareseeingthesamesightstogether.CONCLUSIONWhileobjectivists,constructivists,andposmodernistsargueaboutwhetherandhowtouredobjectsareexperiencedasreal,thispapersuggeststhat,eveniftouredobjectsaretotallyinauthentic,seekingotherwiseisstillpossible,becausetouristscanquestforanalternative,namely,existentialauthenticitytobeactivatedbytouristexperience.Inadditiontoconventionalobjectiveandconstructiveauthenticity,anexistentialversionisajustifiablealternativesourceforauthenticexperiencesintourism.Inanumberoftourismtypessuchasnature,landscape,beach,oceancruising,adventures,family,visitingfriendsandrelatives,andsoon,whattouristsseekaretheirownauthentic366RETHINKINGAUTHENTICITYselvesandintersubjectiveauthenticity,andtheissueofwhetherthetouredobjectsareauthenticisirrelevantorlessrelevant.Sincetheconceptofexistentialauthenticitycanexplainawiderspectrumoftouristphenomenathantheconventionalconceptofauthenticity,itthereforeopensupbroadprospectsforrejustificationofauthenticity-seekingasthefoundationoftouristmotivations.Theargumentspresentedinthispaperarenotconclusivebutrathersuggestive.Furtherresearchalongafewotherdirectionsareinorder.First,empiricalresearchcantestandconfirmtheargumentsputforwardinthispaper.Forinstance,reviewsandanalysesoftouristmarketingdocuments(e.g.,touristbrochures)helptomakeclearhowtheindustrymarketsitsproductsintermssubsumedremainthesameexistentialauthenticity.Second,inthispaperthelimitsofobjectiveandconstructiveauthenticitiesareexposed.However,theirrelevancetotourismisnotnegatedaltogether.Furthereffortsmaydiscoverempiricallyhowobjective,constructive(orsymbolic),andexistentialauthenticitiesaredistributedamongtouristsandwhycertaintouristspreferonekindofauthenticitytoothers.Third,todeepenthedebateaboutauthenticityintourism,areflectiononthelimitsofthehis-toricistconceptionofauthenticitywillbeofgreathelp(Bhabha1994).Fromahistoricistperspective,itisusuallyassumedthatauthenticityisequatedtoanoriginintime.Thisthenimpliesthatsubsequentalteration,creativity,transformation,andemergingattributesareinauthenticintermsofthisorigin.However,theproblemisthatthereisnoabsolutepointoforigin,norisanythingstatic;rather,changeisconstant(E.Bruner1994).Asmentionedbefore,thedifficultyofthishistoricistconceptionofauthenticityliesinthefactthattherestlessandinfiniteretreatofnowwilleventuallymakeanythingthathastakenplaceintheworldauthentic.Thus,thisconceptneedstobetranscended,andthisawaitsmorethoughts.ŽAcknowledgments*TheauthorisgratefultoMauriceRoche,SharonMacDonald,andChrisRojekfortheircommentsonanearlierversionfromwhichthispaperisadapted.REFERENCESAdams,K.M.1984CometoTanaToraja,{{LandoftheHeavenlyKings||:TravelAgentsasBrokersinEthnicity.AnnalsofTourismResearch11:469Ð85.Baudrillard,J.1983Simulations.NewYork:Semiotext(e).Berger,P.L.1973{{Sincerity||and{{Authenticity||inModernSociety.PublicInterest(31):81Ð90.Berger,P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