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高中英语语法整理

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目录: ................................................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。 1.代词 ................................................................................................................................................... 2 2.冠词 ................................................................................................................................................... 8 3.数词 ................................................................................................................................................. 10 4.名词 ................................................................................................................................................. 10 5.形容词 ............................................................................................................................................. 14 6.副词 ................................................................................................................................................. 14 7.独立主格 ......................................................................................................................................... 18 8.With的复合结构 ............................................................................................................................ 18 9.连词 ................................................................................................................................................. 19 10.动词 ............................................................................................................................................... 20 11.系动词 ........................................................................................................................................... 21 12.助动词 ........................................................................................................................................... 21 13.情态动词 ....................................................................................................................................... 22 14.短语动词 ....................................................................................................................................... 25 15.非谓语动词 ................................................................................................................................... 25 补充:worth的用法 ......................................................................................................................... 28 16.动词的时态 ................................................................................................................................... 32 17.动词的语态 ................................................................................................................................... 40 18.主谓一致 ....................................................................................................................................... 43 19.虚拟语气 ....................................................................................................................................... 49 20.祈使句 ........................................................................................................................................... 54 21.反意疑问句 ................................................................................................................................... 56 22.倒装 ............................................................................................................................................... 59 23.定语从句 ....................................................................................................................................... 61 24.名词性从句 ................................................................................................................................... 65 25.状语从句 ....................................................................................................................................... 69

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1.代词

1)人称代词的主格在句子中作主语或主语补语。例如:John waited a while but eventually he went home.约翰等了一会儿,最后他回家了。

说明:在复合句中,如果主句和从句主语相同,代词主语要用在从句中,名词主语用在主句中,例如:When he arrived, John went straight to the bank. 约翰一到就直接去银行了。 2)人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语,但在口语中也能作主语补语,第一人称在省略句中,还可以作主语。例如:I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her. 我看到她和他们在一起,至少我认为是她。(her做宾语,them做介词宾语,her作主语补语)

说明:在上面两例句中,her作主语补语。现代英语中多用宾格,在正式文体中这里应为she。 3)宾格代替主格

a.在简短对话中,当人称代词单独使用或在not 后,多用宾语。

b.在表示比较的非正式的文体中,常用宾格代替主格。 但如果比较状语的谓语保留,则主语只能用主格。He is taller than I/me./He is taller than I am. 4)主格代替宾格

a. 在介词but,except 后,有时可用主格代替宾格。 b. 在电话用语中常用主格。

---- I wish to speak to Mary. --我想和玛丽通话。 ---- This is she. --我就是玛丽。

注意:在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。 I thought it was she. 我以为是她。(主格----主格) I thought it to be her.(宾格----宾格)

I was taken to be she.我被当成了她。(主格----主格) They took me to be her.他们把我当成了她。 (宾格----宾格)

5)不定代词 anybody,everybody,nobody,anyone,someone,everyone,no one,及whoever和person在正式场合使用时,可用he, his, him代替。 Nobody came, did he?谁也没来,是吗?

6)动物名词的指代一般用it或they代替,有时也用he, she,带有亲切的感情色彩。 Give the cat some food. She is hungry.给这猫一些吃的。她饿了。 7)指代车或国家,船舶的名词,含感情色彩时常用she。

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8)并列人称代词单数人称代词并列作主语时,其顺序为:第二人称 > 第三人称> 第一人称,you > he/she;it > I

You, he and I should return on time.

9)并列人称代词复数人称代词作主语时,其顺序为:第一人称 > 第二人称> 第三人称 we>you >They

注意: 在下列情况中,第一人称放在前面。

a. 在承认错误,承担责任时,It was I and John that made her angry. 是我和约翰惹她生气了。 b. 在长辈对晚辈,长官对下属说话时,如长官为第一人称, 如:I and you try to finish it. c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时。 d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。

10)物主代词既有表示所属的作用又有指代作用。 如:John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk. 约翰割破了手指,显而易见,他桌子上有个破玻璃杯。名词性的物主代词在用法上相当于省略了中心名词的--’s 属格结构,例如:Jack’s cap意为The cap is Jack’s. His cap 意为 The cap is his. 11)名词性物主代词的句法功能 a. 作主语, b. 作宾语, c. 作介词宾语,

d. 作主语补语。

12)物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置,修饰一个名词,而必须用双重所有格。 公式为:a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。 13)反身代词

I myself we ourselves 14)反身代词作宾语

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you yourself you yourselves they themselves it itself she herself he himself one oneself a.有些动词需有反身代词,absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave等。 b.用于及物动词+宾语+介词take pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth. 注:有些动词后不跟反身代词,get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up等。 15)反身代词作表语、同位语

16)反身代词在不强调的情况下,but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如:No one but myself (me) is hurt. 注意:

a. 反身代词本身不能单独作主语。 (错) Myself drove the car.

(对) I myself drove the car.我自己开车。

b. 但在and, or, nor连接的并列主语中,第二个主语可用反身代词,特别是myself 作主语。 Charles and myself saw it.

c. 第二人称作宾语,要用反身代词。You should be proud of yourself.你应为自己感到骄傲。 17)相互代词只有each other和one another两个词组。他们表示句中动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的,例:It is easy to see that the people of different cultures have always copied each other. 显而易见,不同文化的人总是相互借鉴的。 18)相互代词的句法功能 a. 作动词宾语; b. 可作介词宾语;

说明:传统语法认为,相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other,存在于两个以上人和物之间用one another。现代英语中,两组词交替使用的实例也很多。 c. 相互代词可加-’s 构成所有格。

19)指示代词分单数(this / that)和复数(these / those)两种形式,既可作限定词又可做代词,例如:单数复数限定词:This girl is Mary.Those men are my teachers. 20)指示代词的句法功能; a. 作主语 b. 作宾语 c. 作主语补语 d. 作介词宾语

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说明1:

指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人,但作其他句子成分时只能指物,不能指人,例如: (对)That is my teacher.那是我的老师。(that作主语,指人)

(对)He is going to marry this girl.他要和这个姑娘结婚。(this作限定词) (错)He is going to marry this.(this作宾语时不能指人) (对)I bought this.我买这个。(this指物,可作宾语) 说明2:

That和those可作定语从句的先行词,但this和 these不能,同时,在作先行词时,只有those可指人,试比较:

(对) He admired those who looked beautiful. 他赞赏那些外表漂亮的人。(those指人) (错) He admired that who danced well.(that作宾语时不能指人)

(对) He admired those who danced well.他赞赏跳舞好的人。(those指人)

(对) He admired those which looked beautiful. 他赞赏那些外表漂亮的东西。(those指物) 21)疑问代词在句中起名词词组的作用,用来构成疑问句。疑问代词有下列几个:指人:who, whom, whose;指物:what;既可指人又可指物:which。

22)疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前,没有性和数的变化,除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which, whose还可作限定词。 说明1:

无论是做疑问代词还是限定词,which 和 what 所指的范围不同。what所指的范围是无限的,而which则指在一定的范围内。 说明2:

Whom是who的宾格,在书面语中,它作动词宾语或介词宾语,在口语中作宾语时,可用who代替,但在介词后只能用whom。 说明3:

疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时,过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首,现代英语中,疑问代词在句首,介词在句未。 说明4:

疑问代词还可引导名词性从句。

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23)关系代词用来引导定语从句。它代表先行词,同时在从句中作一定的句子成分,例如:The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin.跟我讲话的姑娘是我表妹。(该句中whom既代表先行词the girl,又在从句中作介词to的宾语。)

24)关系代词有主格,宾格和属格之分,并有指人与指物之分。在限定性定语从句中,that 可指人也可指物;主格使用who which that,宾格使用whom that that,属格whose of which/whose 25)关系代词which的先行词可以是一个句子。说明:关系代词that在从句中作宾语或表语时可省略。

26)不定代词有all , both, every, each, either, neither, more, little, few, much, many, another, other, some, any , one, no 以及some, something, anything, everything, somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, nothing , nobody, no one, none, everybody, everyone.等。

27)不定代词除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词,也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。

28)all 都,指三者以上。all 的主谓一致:all的单复数由它所修饰或指代的名词的单复数决定。

all通常不与可数名词单数连用,如:不说 all the book,而说 the whole book。 但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用,如 all day,all night,all the year;但习惯上不说 all hour,all century。 all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用,如 all China,all the city,all my life,all the way。 29)both都,指两者。both 与复数动词连用,但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。both, all 都可作同位语,其位置在行为动词前,be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省 去,则位于助动词或情态动词之前。

30)neither两者都不;neither作主语时,谓语动词用单数;作定语与单数名词连用,但neither… nor 用作并列连词,可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。neither 可用于She can’t sing,neither (can) he.句型,避免重复。 说明:neither 与nor

a.如前句是否定式从句,则主句用neither,而不用 nor。 b.如后连续有几个否定句式,则用nor,不用neither。

31)none作主语,多与of 构成短语 none of。在答语中,none可单独使用。none作主语,谓语动词单复数均可。但如做表语,则其单复数与表语一致。

32)few一些,少数,few 作主语时,谓语动词用复数,多用于肯定句。

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33)some一些,可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。当做”某一”解时,也可与单数名词连用。(= a certain) 注意:

(1)在肯定疑问句中用some代替any。 (2)some用于其他句式中:

a.肯定疑问句中:说话人认为对方的答案会是肯定的,或期望得到肯定回答时。Would you like句式中,表委婉请求或建议。

b.在条件状语从句中表示确定的意义时。 c.some位于主语部分。

d.当否定的是整体中的部分时,some可用于否定句。

34)any 一些,多用于否定句和疑问句和条件状语从句中。当句中含有任何的意思时,any可用于肯定句。

35)one, ones 为复数形式,ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前,则用some, any,而不用ones。

说明:代词比较one, that和it ,one表示泛指,that和it 表示特指。that与所指名词为同类,但不是同一个,而it 与所指名词为同一个。 one/another/the other one… the other只有两个 some… the others有三个以上 others = other people/things the others = the rest剩余的全部 a.泛指另一个用another。

b.一定范围内两人(物),一个用one,另一个用the other。

c.一定范围内三者,一个用one,另一个用one (another),第三个可用the other,a third。 d.一定范围内,除去一部分人/物,剩余的全部用the others。

e.泛指别的人或物时,用others当在一定范围内,除去一部分后,剩余部分但不是全部时,也用others。

36)anyone 和 any one,anyone仅指人,any one既可指人,也可指物。

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37)no one 和none

a. none 后跟of短语,既可指人又可指物,而no one只单独使用,只指人。 b. none 作主语,谓语动词用单,复数均可,而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。 38)every 和each

a.every 强调全体的概念,each强调个体概念。

b.every 指三个以上的人或物(含三个),each指两个以上的人或物 (含两个)。 c.every 只作形容词,不可单独使用。each可作代词或形容词。 d.every不可以作状语,each可作状语。

e.every 有反复重复的意思,如 every two weeks等;each没有。 f.every 与not 连用,表示部分否定;each 和not连用表示全部否定。

39)both, either, neither,... 这些词都可用作代词或形容词。其位置都在be 动词之后,行为动词之前或第一助动词之后。

a.both (两者都),either(两者中任何一个),neither (两者都不)。以上词使用范围为两个人或物。 b.both与复数连用,either与单数连用。Either of the two boys is clever. 两个男孩都很聪明。 c. all (所有的,全部的人或物),any (任何一个),none (都不)。以上词使用范围为三者以上。 注意:all与none用法一样。跟单数名词,用单数动词;跟复数名词,用复数动词。 40)many, much

Many,much都意为”许多”,many +可数名词,much +不可数名词。 41)few, little, a few,...

(a) few +可数名词,(a) little +不可数名词 a few / a little 为肯定含义,还有一点 few / little为否定含义,没有多少了。

固定搭配:only a few (=few)not a few (=many)quite a few (=many);many a (=many)

2.冠词

冠词是虚词,本身不能单独使用,也没有词义,它用在名词的前面,帮助指明名词的含义。英语中的冠词有三种,一种是定冠词(the Definite Article),另一种是不定冠词(the Indefinite Article),还有一种是零冠词(Zero Article)。 1)不定冠词的用法

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不定冠词a (an)与数词one 同源,是”一个”,意为one;指某人或某物,意为a certain。a用于辅音音素前,一般读作[e],而an则用于元音音素前,一般读做[en]。代表一类人或物。 2)词组或成语。

a little / a few / a lot / a type of / a pile / a great many / many a / as a rule / in a hurry / in a minute / in a word / in a short while / after a while / have a cold / have a try / keep an eye on / all of a sudden

3)定冠词the与指示代词this,that同源,有”那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西。 a.特指双方都明白的人或物。

b.上文提到过的人或事。

c.指世上独一物二的事物。the sun,the sky,the moon,the earth

d.单数名词连用表示一类事物。如:the dollar 美元;the fox 狐狸;或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人:the rich 富人;the living 生者。

e.用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词only,very,same等前面。 f.与复数名词连用,指整个群体。

g.表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前。

h.用在某些由普通名词构成的国家名称、机关团体、阶级、等专有名词前。 i.用在表示乐器的名词之前:She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴。

j.用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人:the Greens格林一家人 (或格林夫妇)。 k.用在惯用语中:in the day, in the morning (afternoon,evening), the day after tomorrow, the day before yesterday,the next morning, in the sky (water, field, country), in the dark, in the rain, in the distance, in the middle (of), in the end, on the whole,by the way,go to the theater 4)零冠词的用法

a.国名,人名前通常不用定冠词:England,Mary;

b.泛指的复数名词,表示一类人或事物时,可不用定冠词; c.抽象名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词;

d.物质名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词,当表示特定的意思时,需要加定冠词; e.在季节、月份、节日、 假日、日期、星期等表示时间的名词之前,不加冠词; f.在称呼或表示官衔,职位的名词前不加冠词;

g.在三餐、球类运动和娱乐运动的名称前,不加冠词 如:have breakfast,play chess h.当两个或两个以上名词并用时,常省去冠词;

i.当by 与火车等交通工具连用,表示一种方式时,中间无冠词;by bus,by train;

j.有些个体名词不用冠词;如:go to hospital去医院看病;go to the hospital去医院 (并不是去看病,而是有其他目的)

k.不用冠词的序数词;序数词前有物主代词;序数词作副词He came first in the race.;在固定词组中at (the) first, first of all, from first to last 5)冠词与形容词+名词结构

a.两个形容词都有冠词,表示两个不同东西。 b.如后一个形容词无冠词,则指一物。

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6)不定冠词位置

不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。注意:

a.位于下列形容词之后:such,what,many,half。

b.b.当名词前的形容词被副词as, so, too, how, however, enough修饰时,不定冠词应放在形容词之后。

c.quite,rather与单数名词连用,冠词放在其后。但当rather,quite 前仍有形容词,不定冠词放其前后均可。如:quite a lot

d. 在as,though 引导的让步状语从句中,当标语为形容词修饰的名词时,不定冠词放形容词后。当名词被比较级形容词修饰时,不定冠词通常置于比较级形容词之后。 7)定冠词位置

定冠词通常位于名词或名词修饰语前,但放在all,both,double,half,twice,three times等词之后,名词之前。

3.数词

表示数目多少或顺序多少的词叫数词,数词分为基数词和序数词。表示数目多少的数词叫基数词;表示顺序的数词叫序数词。

1)基数词写法和读法: 345 three hundred and forty-five; 2)基数词一般是单数形式,但下列情况,常用复数:

a. 与of 短语连用,表示概数,不能与具体数目连 用,如scores of people 指许多人;

b. 在一些表示”一排”或”一组”的词组里;如:They arrived in twos and threes.他们三三两两的到达了。

c. 表示”几十岁”;

d. 表示”年代”,用 in +the +数词复数;

e. 在乘法运算的一种表示法里,如:3 x 5 = 15 Three fives is (are) fifteen. 3)序数词的缩写形式: first---1st,second---2nd,thirty-first---31st 4)倍数表示法

a. 主语+谓语+倍数(或分数)+ as + adj. + as

b. 主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ the size (amount,length…) of… c. 主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ 形容词(副词)比较级+ than… d. 还可以用by+倍数,表示增加多少倍 5)分数表示法

构成:基数词代表分子,序数词代表分母。分子大于1时,分子的序数词用单数,分母序数词用复数:1/3 one-third;3/37 three and three-sevenths

4.名词

名词可以分为专有名词(Proper Nouns)和普通名词 (Common Nouns),专有名词是某个(些)

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人,地方,机构等专有的名称,如Beijing,China等。普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词,如:book,sadness等。普通名词又可分为下面四类: 个体名词(Individual Nouns):表示某类人或东西中的个体,如:gun。 集体名词(Collective Nouns):表示若干个个体组成的集合体,如:family。 物质名词(Material Nouns):表示无法分为个体的实物,如:air。

抽象名词(Abstract Nouns):表示动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念,如:work。 1)个体名词和集体名词可以用数目来计算,称为可数名词(Countable Nouns),物质名词和抽象名词一般无法用数目计算,称为不可数名词(Uncountable Nouns)。 归纳一下,名词的分类可以下图表示:

专有名词 名 词 个体名词 集体名词 物质名词 抽象名词 可数名词 不可数名词 普通名词 2)名词复数的规则变化 情况 一般情况 构成方法 加 -s 读音 1.清辅音后读/s/; 2.浊辅音和元音后读 /z/ 读 /iz/ 读 /iz/ 读 /z/ 例词 map-maps bag-bags car-cars bus-buses watch-watches license-licenses baby---babies 以s,sh,ch, x等结尾的词 ce,se,ze, (d)ge等结尾的词 以辅音字母+y结尾的词

加 -es 加 -s 变y 为i再加es 3)其它名词复数的规则变化

a.以y结尾的专有名词,或元音字母+y 结尾的名词变复数时,直接加s变复数:如:two Marys; b.以o 结尾的名词,变复数时有些词加s,有些词加es,有些词两种形式均可,如: photo---photos;potato--potatoes;zero---zeros / zeroes;

c.以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时,有些词加s,如: belief---beliefs;有些词去f,fe 加ves,如:half---halves;还有些词两种均可,如:handkerchiefs / handkerchieves 4)名词复数的不规则变化

a. child---children;foot---feet;tooth---teeth;mouse---mice;man---men;woman---women 注意:与 man 和 woman构成的合成词,其复数形式也是 -men 和-women。如:an Englishman,

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two Englishmen.但German不是合成词,故复数形式为Germans;Bowman是姓,其复数是the Bowmans。

b. 单复同形如:deer,sheep,fish,Chinese,Japanese,li,jin,yuan,two li,three mu,four jin,但除人民币元、角、分外,美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。如two dollars。 c. 集体名词,以单数形式出现,但实为复数。如:people,police,cattle 等本身就是复数,不能说 a people,a police,a cattle,但可以说a person,a policeman,a head of cattle,the English,the British,the French,the Chinese,the Japanese,the Swiss 等名词,表示国民总称时,作复数用。如:The Chinese are industries and brave.中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。

d. 以s结尾,仍为单数的名词,如:maths等学科名词,为不可数名词,是单数;news 是不可数名词;the United States,the United Nations 应视为单数。 e. 以复数形式出现的书名,剧名,报纸,杂志名,也可视为单数。

f. 表示由两部分构成的东西,如:glasses (眼镜) trousers,clothes若表达具体数目,要借助数量词pair(对,双);suit(套);a pair of glasses;two pairs of trousers。

g. 另外还有一些名词,其复数形式有时可表示特别意思,如:goods货物,waters水域等。 5)不可数名词量的表示-物质名词 a. 当物质名词转化为个体名词时。

比较:Cake is a kind of food.蛋糕是一种食物。 (不可数) These cakes are sweet.这些蛋糕很好吃。 (可数) b. 当物质名词表示该物质的种类时,名词可数。 This factory produces steel.(不可数) We need various steels.(可数) c. 当物质名词表示份数时,可数。

Our country is famous for tea. 我国因茶叶而闻名。 Two teas, please. 请来两杯茶。 6)抽象名词有时也可数。 four freedoms 四大自由

说明:物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。如:a glass of water 一杯水。 7)定语名词的复数

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名词作定语一般用单数,但也有以下例外。 a. 用复数作定语。如:sports meeting 运动会

b. man, woman, gentleman等作定语时,其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。 如:gentlemen officials

c. 有些原有s结尾的名词,作定语时s保留。如:goods train (货车)

d. 数词+名词作定语时,这个数词一般保留单数形式。如:two-dozen eggs两打鸡蛋;个别的有用复数作定语的,如:a seven-years child。 8)不同国家的人的单复数 名称 中国人 瑞士人 澳大利亚人 俄国人 意大利人 希腊人 法国人 日本人 美国人 印度人 加拿大人 德国人 英国人 瑞典人 9)名词的格

在英语中有些名词可以加”s”来表示所有关系,带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格,如:a teacher’s book。名词所有格的规则如下:

a. 单数名词词尾加”s”,复数名词词尾没有s,也要加”s”。如the boy’s bag 男孩的书包。 b. 若名词已有复数词尾-s,只加” “,如:the workers’ struggle工人的斗争。

c. 凡不能加”s”的名词,都可以用”名词+of +名词”的结构来表示所有关系,如:the title of the song 歌的名字。

d. 在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时,名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词,如:the barber’s 理发店。

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总称(谓语用复数) the Chinese the Swiss the Australians the Russians the Italians the Greek the French the Japanese the Americans the Indians the Canadians the Germans the English the Swedish 一个人 a Chinese a Swiss an Australian a Russian an Italian a Greek a Frenchman a Japanese an American an Indian a Canadian a Germans an Englishman a Swede 两个人 two Chinese two Swiss two Australians two Russians two Italians two Greeks two Frenchmen two Japanese two Americans two Indians two Canadians two Germans two Englishmen two Swedes e. 如果两个名词并列,并且分别有’s,则表示”分别有”;只有一个’s,则表示”共有”。 如:John’s and Mary’s room(两间)John and Mary’s room(一间)

f. 复合名词或短语,’s 加在最后一个词的词尾。如:a month or two’s absence

5.形容词

形容词修饰名词,说明事物或人的性质或特征。通常可将形容词分成性质形容词和叙述形容词两类,其位置不一定都放在名词前面。

a.直接说明事物的性质或特征的形容词是性质形容词,它有级的变化,可以用程度副词修饰,在句中可作定语、表语和补语。例如:hot 热的。

b.叙述形容词只能作表语,所以又称为表语形容词。这类形容词没有级的变化,也不可用程度副词修饰。大多数以a开头的形容词都属于这一类。例如:afraid 害怕的。(错)He is an ill man.(对)The man is ill.这类词还有:well,unwell,ill,faint,afraid,alike,alive,alone,asleep,awake 等。

c. 形容词作定语修饰名词时,要放在名词的前边。但是如果形容词修饰以-thing为字尾的词语时,要放在这些词之后,如:something nice。

1)大部分形容词加-ly可构成副词。但 friendly,deadly,lovely,lonely,likely,lively,ugly,brotherly,仍为形容词。

2)有些以-ly 结尾既为形容词,也为副词。如daily,weekly,monthly,yearly,early等。 3)某些形容词加上定冠词可以泛指一类人,与谓语动词的复数连接。如:the dead。 4)有关国家和民族的形容词加上定冠词指这个民族的整体,与动词的复数连用。

5)多个形容词修饰名词的顺序为:限定词--数词--描绘词--(大小,长短,形状,新旧,颜色) --出处--材料性质,类别--名词

6)一般与被修饰形容词关系密切的形容词靠近名词;如果几个形容词的重要性差不多,音节少的形容词在前,音节多的放在后,在不能确定时,可参照下表:限定词+数量词(序数词在前,基数词在后)+性状形容词+大小、长短、高低等形体+新旧+颜色+国籍+材料+名词。those + three + beautiful + large + square,old + brown + wood + table

6.副词

副词主要用来修饰动词,形容词,副词或其他结构。

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1)副词的位置在动词之前;在be动词、助动词之后;多个助动词时,副词一般放在第一个助动词后。 注意:

a. 大多数方式副词位于句尾,但宾语过长,副词可以提前,以使句子平衡。 b. 方式副词well,badly糟、坏,hard等只放在句尾。

2)副词的排列顺序:时间、地点副词小单位的在前,大单位在后;方式副词短的在前,长的在后,并用and或but等连词连接。

3)多个不同副词排列:程度+地点+方式+时间副词。 注意:

a. 副词very可以修饰形容词,但不能修饰动词。

b. 副词enough要放在形容词的后面,形容词enough放在名词前后都可。 4)兼有两种形式的副词 a. close与closely

close意思是”近”; closely 意思是”仔细地” b.late 与lately

late意思是”晚”; lately 意思是”最近” c. deep与deeply

deep意思是”深”,表示空间深度;deeply时常表示感情上的深度,”深深地” d. high与highly

high表示空间高度;highly表示程度,相当于much e. wide与widely

wide表示空间宽度;widely意思是”广泛地”,”在许多地方” f. free与freely

free的意思是”免费”;freely 的意思是”无限制地” 5)形容词与副词的比较级

大多数形容词(性质形容词)和副词有比较级和最高级的变化,即原级、比较级和最高级,用来表示事物的等级差别。原级即形容词的原形,比较级和最高级有规则变化和不规则变化两种。

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a.规则变化

单音节词和少数双音节词,加词尾-er,-est来构成比较级和最高级。 构成法 一般单音节词未尾加-er,-est 以不发音的e结尾的单音词和少数以- le结尾的双音节词只加-r,-st 以一个辅音字母结尾的闭音节单音节词,双写结尾的辅音字母,再加-er,-est “以辅音字母+y”结尾的双音节词,改y为i,再加-er,-est 少数以-er,-ow结尾的双音节词未尾加-er,-est 其他双音节词和多音节词,在前面加more,most来构成比较级和最高级。

b.不规则变化

原级 比较级 good(好的) ;well(健康的) better bad (坏的);ill(有病的) worse old (老的) older/elder much/many(多的) more little(少的) less far (远的) farther/further 6)as+形容词或副词原级+as在否定句或疑问句中可用so… as。

7)当as… as 中间有名词时采用as +形容词+ a +单数名词或as + many/much +名词。 8)用表示倍数的词或其他程度副词做修饰语时,放在as的前面。 9)倍数+ as + adj. + as<=> 倍数+ the +n.+ of 10)比较级形容词或副词+than 注意:

a. 要避免重复使用比较级。 b. 要避免将主语含在比较对象中。

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原级 tall(高的) great(巨大的) nice(好的) large(大的) able(有能力的) big(大的) hot (热的) easy(容易的) busy(忙的) clever(聪明的) narrow(窄的) important(重要的) easily(容易地) 比较级 taller greater nicer larger abler bigger hotter easier busier cleverer narrower more important; more easily 最高级 tallest greatest nicest largest ablest biggest hottest easiest busiest cleverest narrowest most important, Most easily 最高级 best worst oldest/eldest most least farthest/furthest c. 要注意对应句型,遵循前后一致的原则。

11)要注意冠词的使用,后面有名词的时候,前面才有可能有名词。

12)可修饰比较级的词 a bit, a little, rather, much, far, by far, many, a lot, lots, a great deal, any, still, even等;还可以用表示倍数的词或度量名词作修饰语(以上词(除by far)外,必须置于比较级形容词或副词的前面)。 13)many, old和far

a. 如果后接名词时,much more +不可数名词;many more +可数名词复数

b. old 有两种比较级和最高级形式:older/oldest 和elder/eldest。elder,eldest只用于兄弟姐妹的长幼关系。

c. far 有两种比较级,farther,further. 在英语中两者都可指距离。 在美语中,father 表示距离,further表示进一步。 I have nothing further to say. 14)the+最高级+比较范围

a. 形容词最高级前通常必须用定冠词 the,副词最高级前可不用。 b. 形容词most前面没有the,不表示最高级的含义,只表示”非常”。 注意:使用最高级要注意将主语包括在比较范围内。 15)by far, far, much, mostly, almost等可修饰最高级。 注意:

a.very可修饰最高级,但位置与much不同。 b.序数词通常只修饰最高级。 16)句型转换:

Mike is the most intelligent in his class.

Mike is more intelligent than any other students in his class.

17)“否定词语+比较级”,“否定词语+ so… as”结构表示最高级含义。 Nothing is so easy as this. =Nothing is easier than this. =This is the easiest thing. 18)和more有关的词组

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a. the more… the more…越……就越……

b. more B than A与其说A不如说B;less A than B He is more lazy than slow at his work. = He is less slow than lazy at his work.

c. no more… than… 与……一样……,不比……多;no less… than…与……一样…… d. more than不只是,非常 She is more than kind to us all.

7.独立主格

1)独立主格结构的构成

a. 名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词; b. 名词(代词)+形容词; c. 名词(代词)+副词; d. 名词(代词)+不定式; e. 名词(代词) +介词短语构成。 2)独立主格结构的特点

a. 独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同,它独立存在。

b. 名词或代词与后面的分词,形容词,副词,不定 式,介词等是主谓关系。 c. 独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。 举例:

The test finished, we began our holiday.

= When the test was finished, we began our holiday.

8.With的复合结构

表伴随时,既可用分词的独立结构,也可用with的复合结构。 with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语 注意:

a. 主格结构使用介词的问题:

当介词是in时,其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分(如物主代词或冠词),也不用复数。但 b 部分词作逻辑主语时,及物动词用现在分词,不及物动词用过去分词。

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9.连词

连词是一种虚词,它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词,短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要分为两类:并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如:and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等。 并列连词与并列结构 1)并列连词and与or

注意:and还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。(or也有此用法) 2)both…and两者都

3)not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且)

注意:not only… but also关联两个分句时,一个分句因有否定词not而必须倒装。Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.

4)neither…nor 意思为”既不……也不……”谓语动词采用就近原则,与nor后的词保持一致。Neither you nor he is to blame. 5)比较and和or

a. 并列结构中,or通常用于否定句,and用于肯定句。

b. 但有时and也可用于否定句。在否定中并列结构用or连接,但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构,因此要用and。

6)表示选择的并列结构or意思为”否则”。

7)either…or意思为”或者……或者……”。注意谓语动词采用就近原则。 8)but表示转折,while表示对比。

9)not…but…意思为”不是……而是……”,not和but后面的用词要遵循一致原则。 10)表原因关系for

for是并列连词,不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首,只能将其放在两个分句中间。 11)so, therefore 注意:

a. 两个并列连词不能连用,但therefore, then, yet等可以和并列连词连用。 b. although… yet…,但although不与but连用。

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12)比较so和such

其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so是副词,只能修饰形容词或副词。so还可与表示数量的形容词many,few,much,little连用,形成固定搭配。

so + adj.=such + a(n)+ n.;so foolish=such a fool

so + adj. + a(n) + n.=such + a(n) + adj.+ n. (pl.);so nice a flower=such a nice flower so + adj. + n. (pl.)=such +n. (pl.);so many/ few flowers =such nice flowers so + adj. + n. [不可数]=such + adj. +n.[不可数] so many people=such a lot of people

so many已成固定搭配,a lot of 虽相当于many,但a lot of后接名词词性,只能用such搭配。 so…that与such…that之间的转换既为so与such之间的转换。

10.动词

1)表示动作中状态的词叫做动词。

2)根据其在句中的功能,动词可分为四类,分别是:实义动词(Notional Verb)、系动词(Link Verb)、助动词(Auxiliary Verb)、情态动词(Modal Verb)。

说明:有些情况下有些动词是兼类词,例如:We are having a meeting.我们正在开会。(having是实义动词。)He has gone to New York.他已去纽约。(has是助动词。)

3)动词根据其后是否带有宾语,可分为两类,分别是:及物动词(Transitive Verb)、不及物动词(Intransitive Verb),缩写形式分别为vt.和vi.。 说明:同一动词有时可用作及物动词,有时可用作不及物动词。

4)根据是否受主语的人称和数的限制,可分两类,分别是:限定动词(Finite Verb)、非限定动词(Non-finite Verb)

说明:英语中共有三种非限定动词,分别是:动词不定式(Infinitive)、动名词(Gerund)、分词(Participle)。

5)根据动词的组成形式,可分为三类,分别是:单字词(One-Word Verb)、短语动词(Phrasal Verb)、动词短语(Verbal Phrase)

6)动词有五种形态,分别是:原形(Original Form)、第三人称单数形式(Singular From in Third Personal)、过去式(Past Form)、过去分词(Past Participle)、现在分词(Present Participle)。

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11.系动词

系动词亦称联系动词(Link Verb),作为系动词,它本身有词义,但不能单独用作谓语,后边必须跟表语(亦称补语),构成系表结构说明主语的状况、性质、特征等情况。 说明:

有些系动词又是实义动词,该动词表达实义时,有词义,可单独作谓语 1)状态系动词用来表示主语状态,只有be一词。

2)持续系动词用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度,主要有keep, rest, remain, stay, lie, stand等。

3)表像系动词用来表示”看起来像”这一概念,主要有seem, appear, look。 4)感官系动词主要有feel, smell, sound, taste。

5)变化系动词表示主语变成什么样,变化系动词主要有become, grow, turn, fall, get, go, come, run。

6)终止系动词表示主语已终止动作,主要有prove, trun out, 表达”证实”,”变成”之意。

12.助动词

1)协助主要动词构成谓语动词词组的词叫助动词(Auxiliary Verb)。被协助的动词称作主要动词(Main Verb)。助动词自身没有词义,不可单独使用。 2)助动词协助主要动词完成以下功用,可以用来: a. 表示时态; b. 表示语态 c. 构成疑问句;

d. 与否定副词not合用,构成否定句; e. 加强语气。

3)最常用的助动词有:be, have, do, shall, will, should, would。 4)助动词be +现在分词,构成进行时态。 5)be +过去分词,构成被动语态。 6)be + 动词不定式,可表示下列内容: a. 表示最近、未来的计划或安排。

说明:这种用法也可以说成是一种将来时态表达法。

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b. 表示命令。 c. 征求意见。 d. 表示相约、商定。

7)助动词have +过去分词,构成完成时态。 8)have + been +现在分词,构成完成进行时。 9)have+been +过去分词,构成完成式被动语态。 10)助动词do构成一般疑问句 11)do + not构成否定句。 12)do构成否定祈使句。

说明:构成否定祈使句只用do,不用did和does。 13)do放在动词原形前,加强该动词的语气。 14)do用于倒装句。

说明:引导此类倒装句的副词有never, seldom, rarely, little, only, so, well等。 15)do用作代动词。

16)助动词shall和will作为助动词可与动词原形一起构成一般将来时。

说明:在过去的语法中,语法学家说shall用于第一人称,will只用于第二、第三人称。现在,尤其是在口语中,will常用于第一人称,但shall只用于第一人称,如用于第二、第三人称,就失去助动词的意义,变为情态动词。

17)should无词义,只是shall的过去形式,与动词原形构成过去将来时,只用于第一人称。 18)would也无词义,是will的过去形式,与动词原形构成过去将来时,用于第二、第三人称。

13.情态动词

1)语法特征

a. 情态动词不能表示正在发生或已经发生的事情,只表示期待或估计某事的发生。 b. 情态动词除ought和have外,后面只能接不带to的不定式。 c. 情态动词没有人称,数的变化,即情态动词第三人称单数不加-s。 d. 情态动词没有非谓语形式,即没有不定式,分词,等形式。

2)can/could 表示能力;可能(过去时用could),只用于现在式和过去式(could)。

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3)be able to可以用于各种时态。以下情况只用be able to a. 位于助动词后。 b. 情态动词后。

c. 表示过去某时刻动作时。 d. 用于句首表示条件。

e. 表示成功地做了某事时,只能用was/were able to, 不能用could。 注意:could不表示时态

a. 提出委婉的请求,(注意在回答中不可用could)。 b. 在否定,疑问句中表示推测或怀疑。

4)may表示允许或请求;表示没有把握的推测;放在句首表示祝愿。 注意:might 表示推测时,不表示时态。只是可能性比may 小。 5)may/might as well后面接不带to 的不定式,意为”不妨”。

6)have to和must两词都是必须的意思,have to表示客观的需要,must表示说话人主观上的看法,既主观上的必要。

7)have to有人称、数、时态的变化,而must只有一种形式。但must可用于间接引语中表示过去的必要或义务。

8)在否定结构中:don’t have to表示不必;mustn’t表示禁止。 9)must表示推测,在肯定句中表示较有把握的推测,意为一定。

10)must表对现在的状态或现在正发生的事情的推测时,must后面通常接系动词be的原形或行为动词的进行式。

11)must表示对已发生的事情的推测时,must要接完成式。

12)must表示对过去某时正发生的事情的推测,must后面要接不定式的完成进行式。 13)否定推测用can’t。

14)can, could, may, might, must皆可表示推测,其用法如下: a. 情态动词+动词原形。

表示对现在或将来的情况的推测,此时动词通常为系动词。 b. 情态动词+动词现在进行时。

表示对现在或将来正在进行的情况进行推测。

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c. 情态动词+动词完成时。 表示对过去情况的推测。

d. 情态动词+动词的现在完成进行时。 表示对过去正在发生事情的推测。

e. 推测的否定形式,疑问形式用can’t, couldn’t表示。

注意:could, might表示推测时不表示时态,其推测的程度不如can, may。

15)may(might) have + done sth, can (could) have + done sth表示过去,推测过去时间里可能发生的事情。

16)must have +done sth,对过去时间里可能发生的事情的推测,语气较强具有肯定的意思。 17)ought to have done sth, should have done sth本应该做某事,而事实上并没有做。否定句表示不该做某事而做了。ought to 在语气上比should 要强。 18)needn’t have done sth本没必要做某事 19)would like to have done sth本打算做某事

20)should 和ought to 都为应该的意思,可用于各种人称。表示要求,命令时,语气由should

(应该)、had better(最好)、must(必须)渐强。

21)had better表示最好,相当于一个助动词,只有一种形式且后面要跟动词原形。had better (not) do sth.。had better have done sth表示与事实相反的结果,意为本来最好。 22)would rather表示宁愿 would rather (not) do

would rather… than…宁愿……而不愿。

还有would sooner, had rather, had sooner都表示宁愿、宁可的意思。

23)带to的情态动词有四个:ought to, have to, used to, be to, 如加上have got to ,(=must), be able to,为六个。它们的疑问,否定形式应予以注意: Do they have to pay their bill before the end of the month? She didn’t use to play tennis before she was fourteen. You ought not to have told her all about it. Ought he to see a heart specialist at once?

ought to 本身作为情态动词使用。其他的词作实义动词使用,变疑问、否定时,须有do等助

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动词协助。

24)need和dare两词既可做实义动词用,又可做情态动词用。作为情态动词,两者都只能用于疑问句,否定句和条件句。need作实义动词时后面的不定式必须带to,而dare作实义动词用时, 后面的to时常可以被省略。

a. 实义动词:need(需要,要求)need + n. / to do sth

b. 情态动词:need,只用原形need后加do,否定形式为need not。

c. need 的被动含义:need, want, require, worth(形容词)后面接doing也可以表示被动: need doing = need to be done

14.短语动词

动词加小品词(Particle,构成短语动词的副词和介词都统称为小品词)构成的起动词作用的短语叫短语动词(Phrasal Verb),短语动词的构成基本有下列几种:动词+副词;动词+介词;动词+副词+介词。

15.非谓语动词

在句子中充当除谓语以外的句子成分的动词形式叫做非谓语动词。非谓语动词分为三种形式:不定式,动名词,和分词(分词包括现在分词和过去分词)。 1)不定式

时态\\语态 一般式 完成式 主动 to do to have done 被动 to be done to have been done 2)不定式作宾语-动词+不定式

3)不定式作宾语-动词+不定式;动词+宾语+不定式

动词主要有:ask, beg, choose, expect, hate, help intend like, love, need prefer, prepare, promise, want, wish。

4)不定式作宾语-动词+疑问词+ to

动词主要有:decide, know, consider forget, learn, remember, show, understand, see, wonder, hear, find out, explain, tell。

注意:疑问词带不定式在句中作成分时,谓语动词用单数。 5)不定式作补语--动词+宾语+不定式(to do)

find的特殊用法:其后可用分词做宾补,或先加形式宾语,再加形容词,最后加带to的动词

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不定式。find后也可带一个从句。此类动词还有get,have。

6)to+be的不定式结构,作补语的动词主要有acknowledge, believe, consider, think, declare(声称), discover, fancy(设想), feel, find, guess, judge, imagine, know, prove, see(理解), show, suppose, take(以为), understand。 7)to be +形容词

动词主要有:seem, appear, be said, be supposed, be believed, be thought, be known, be reported, hope, wish, desire, want, plan, expect, mean。 8)there be+不定式

believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, undrstand后接there be…。 注意:有些动词需用as短语做补语,如regard, think believe, take, consider。 9)不定式作主语 常用It is+adj.+that+to do不定式句型 注意:

a. 其他系动词如,look, appear等也可用于此句型 b. 不定式作为句子成分时,动词用单数形式。

c. 当不定式作主语的句子中又有一个不定式作表语时,不能用It is… to…的句型 10)It’s for sb/It’s of sb句型中

a. for sb.常用于表示事物的特征特点,表示客观形式的形容词,如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等。

b. of sb的句型一般用表示人物的性格,品德,表示主观感情或态度的形容词,如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。 for 与of 的辨别方法:

用介词后面的代词作主语,用介词前边的形容词作表语,造个句子。如果道理上通顺用of,不通则用for。

11)不定式作表语-不定式可放在be动词后面,形成表语。 12)不定式作定语通常要放在被修饰的词后。 13)不定式作状语 a. 作目的状语

To… only to (仅仅为了), in order to, so as to, so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)

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b. 作结果状语,表事先没有预料到的,要放在句子后面。 c. 作原因状语

说明:用作介词的to有两种用法:一为不定式+动词原形;一为介词+名词/动名词。 admit to承认,confess to承认,be accustomed to 习惯于,be used to 习惯于,stick to 坚持, turn to开始,着手于,devote oneself to 献身于,be devoted to 致力于,look forward to 盼望,pay attention to注意。 14)省to的动词不定式

a. 情态动词 (除ought 外,ought to); b. 使役动词 let, have, make;

c. 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补,省略to。

注意:在被动语态中则to不能省掉。 d. would rather,had better: e. Why… / why not…:

f. help 可带to,也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth:

g. but和except:but前是动词do时,后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。 h. 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式,第二个to 可以省去:

i. 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后,可以省去to be: 15)动词不定式的否定式,不定式前+not 16)不定式特殊句型too…to… a. 太……以至于……

b. 如在too前有否定词,则整个句子用否定词表达肯定,too后那个词表达一种委婉含义,意为不太。

c. 当too前面有only, all, but时,意思是:非常……=very。 17)不定式特殊句型so as to

表示目的;它的否定式是so as not to do。 18)so kind as to ---劳驾 19)不定式的时态和语态

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语态:主动和被动态 一般式to do/to be done 进行式to be doing

完成式to have done/to have been done 完成进行式to have been doing 说明:

a. 现在时:一般现在时表示的动词,有时与谓语动词表示的动作同时发生,有时发生在谓语动词的动作之后。

b. 完成时:表示的动作发生在谓语动词表示的动作之前。 c. 进行时:表示动作正在进行,与谓语动词表示的动作同时发生。 d. 完成进行时 20)动名词

时态\\语态 一般式 完成式 主动 doing having done 被动 being done having been done 21)动名词作主语在谓语动词之前。 22)动名词作宾语

a. 动词后加动名词doing作宾语V. + doing sth

动词主要有:admit 承认,appreciate 感激、赞赏,avoid 避免,complete 完成,consider 认为,delay 耽误,deny 否认,detest 讨厌,endure 忍受,enjoy 喜欢,escape 逃脱,prevent阻止,fancy 想象,finish 完成,imagine 想象,mind 介意,miss 想念,postpone 推迟,practise 训练,recall 回忆,resent 讨厌,resist 抵抗,resume 继续,risk 冒险,suggest 建议,face 面对,include 包括,stand 忍受,understand 理解 forgive 宽恕,keep 继续

b. 词组后接doing(主要词组有:admit to,prefer,to be used to,lead to,devote oneself to, 23)动名词作表语

Her job is washing,cleaning and taking care of the children.

补充:worth的用法

worth,worthy,worth-while都是形容词,意为值得。

a. worth:be worth + n.当名词为金钱时,表示”……值得……”

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be worth doing sth.意思是……某事值得被做。

b. worthy:be worthy of +n.当名词为抽象名词时表示”……值得……” be worthy to be done 意思是”某事值得被做” c. worth-while:be worth-while to do sth”值得做某事” 24)分词

时态\\语态 一般式 完成式 25)分词作定语 a. 分词前置

We can see the rising sun. 我们可以看到东升的旭日

b. 分词后置 (i.分词词组;ii.个别分词如given, left;iii.修饰不定代词something等) There was a girl sitting there.有个女孩坐在那里 This is the question given. 这是所给的问题 There is nothing interesting.没有有趣的东西 c. 过去分词作定语

与其修饰的词是被动关系,相当于一个被动语态的定语从句。 Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists. 26)分词作状语

If more attention was given, the trees could have grown better. -> Given more attention, the trees could have grown better. 假如多给些照顾,那些树会长得更好。

注意:选择现在分词还是过去分词,关键看主句的主语。如分词的动作是主句的主语发出,分词就选用现在分词,反之就用过去分词。 27)连词+分词(短语)

有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚,可在分词前加连词。 连词有:when,while,if though,after, before, as.但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个,如: While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building. waiting 和saw 的主语相同。

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主动 doing having done 被动 being done having been done 28)分词作补语

通常在感官动词和使役动词之后,如: I found my car missing.我发现我的车不见了。 I’ll have my watch repaired.我想把我的手表修一下。 29)分词作表语

现在分词: 表示主动,正在进行 过去分词: 表示被动,已经完成

She looked tired with cooking.她由于忙着做饭,看上去有些疲倦。 He remained standing beside the table.他依然站在桌旁。 30)分词作插入语

其结构是固定的,意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。 generally speaking一般说来 talking of (speaking of) 说道 strictly speaking 严格的说 judging from 从…判断 all things considered 从整体来看

taking all things into consideration全面看来

Judging from his face, he must be ill.从他的脸色看,他一定是病了。

Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs. 总的来说,狗比猪跑得快。 (speaking 并不是dogs的动作) 31)分词的时态 a. 与主语动词同时

Hearing the news, he jumped with joy.听到这一消息,他高兴得手舞足蹈。 b. 先于主动词

While walking in the garden,he hurt his leg. 在花园里散步时他伤了腿。 分词作时间状语,如果先与主动词的动作,且强调先后,要用having done。 Having finished his homework, he went out. =As he had finished his homework, he went out.

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做完作业后,他出去了。 31)分词的语态

a. 现在分词表示主动,过去分词表示被动。

He is the man giving you the money. (= who gave you…)他就是给你钱的那个人。 He is the man stopped by the car. ( = who was stopped by…) 他就是那个被车拦住的人。

b. 不及物动词的过去分词表示动作已经发生

gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned等动词,如:a well-read person.一个读过许多书的人。

33)否定形式:not+不定式,not+动名词,not+现在分词 34)动名词与不定式的区别:

a. 动名词表达的是:状态,性质,心境,抽象,经常性,已发生的; 不定式表达的是:目的,结果,原因,具体,一次性,将发生的。 b. 接不定式或动名词,意义相同。 c. 动名词与不定式语义不同的有11 组: 1. stop to do

stop doing

2. forget to do forget doing 3 remember to do

remember doing

4. regret to do regret doing 5. cease to do

cease doing

6. try to do try doing 7. go on to do go on doing 8. afraid to do afraid doing 9. interested to do interested doing 10. mean to do mean doing

11. begin/ start to do begin/ start doing

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16.动词的时态

1)一般现在时的用法

a. 经常性或习惯性的动作,常与表示频度的时间状语连用。与时间状语every…, sometimes, at…, on Sunday连用。

I leave home for school at 7 every morning. c. 表示客观真理,客观存在,科学事实。 The earth moves around the sun. d. 表示格言或警句中。

Pride goes before a fall.骄者必败。

注意:此用法如果出现在宾语从句中,即使主句是过去时,从句谓语也要用一般现在时。 例:Columbus proved that the earth is round.. e. 现在时刻的状态、能力、性格、个性。 比较:Now I put the sugar in the cup. I am doing my homework now.

第一句用一般现在时,用于操作演示或指导说明的示范性动作,表示言行的瞬间动作。再如:Now watch me, I switch on the current and stand back. 第二句中的now是进行时的标志,表示正在进行的动作的客观状况,所以后句用一般现在时。 2)一般过去时的用法

a. 在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或存在的状态。

时间状语有:yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982等。 b. 表示在过去一段时间内,经常性或习惯性的动作。 When I was a child, I often played football in the street. c. 句型:

It is time for sb. to do sth“到……时间了”“该……了” It is time sb. did sth. “时间已迟了”“早该……了” It is time for you to go to bed.你该睡觉了。 It is time you went to bed.你早该睡觉了。

would (had) rather sb. did sth.表示“宁愿某人做某事”

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I’d rather you came tomorrow.

d. wish, wonder, think, hope 等用过去时,作试探性的询问、请求、建议等。 I thought you might have some. 我以为你想要一些。

比较:一般过去时表示的动作或状态都已成为过去,现已不复存在。 Christine was an invalid all her life. (含义:她已不在人间。) Christine has been an invalid all her life. (含义:她现在还活着)

Mrs. Darby lived in Kentucky for seven years. (含义:达比太太已不再住在肯塔基州。) Mrs. Darby has lived in Kentucky for seven years.(含义:现在还住在肯塔基州,有可能指刚离去) 注意:用过去时表示现在,表示委婉语气。 补充:used to/be used to

used to + do:“过去常常”表示过去习惯性的动作或状态,但如今已不存在。 Mother used not to be so forgetful.

be used to + doing: 对……已感到习惯,或”习惯于”,to是介词,后需加名词或动名词。 He is used to a vegetarian diet. 3)一般将来时的用法

1)shall用于第一人称,常被will 所代替。

will 在陈述句中用于各人称,在争求意见时常用于第二人称。 Which paragraph shall I read first. Will you be at home at seven this evening? 2)be going to +不定式,表示将来。 a. 主语的意图,即将做某事。 What are you going to do tomorrow? b. 计划,安排要发生的事。

The play is going to be produced next month。 c. 有迹象要发生的事

Look at the dark clouds, there is going to be a storm. 4)be +不定式表将来,按计划或正式安排将发生的事。 We are to discuss the report next Saturday.

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5)be about to +不定式,意为马上做某事。 He is about to leave for Beijing. 注意:

a. be about to 不能与tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。be going to/will,用于条件句时,be going to表将来,will表意愿。 b. be to和be going to

be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事;be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。 6)一般现在时表将来

a. 动词come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return的一般现在时表将来。这主要用来表示在时间上已确定或安排好的事情。The train leaves at six tomorrow morning. b. 倒装句,表示动作正在进行, There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing. c. 在时间或条件句中。

When Bill comes (不是will come), ask him to wait for me. d. 在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。 I hope they have a nice time next week.

e. 用现在进行时表示将来,意为:”意图”、”打算”、”安排”、常用于人。常用词为come, go, start, arrive, leave, stay等。 7)现在完成时

现在完成时用来表示之前已发生或完成的动作或状态,其结果的确和现在有联系。动作或状态发生在过去但它的影响现在还存在;也可表示持续到现在的动作或状态。其构成是have (has) +过去分词。

8)比较过去时与现在完成时

a. 过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情,强调动作;现在完成时为过去发生的,强调过去的事情对现在的影响,强调的是影响。

b. 过去时常与具体的时间状语连用,而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用,或无时间状语。

c. 具体的时间状语:

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一般过去时的时间状语:yesterday, last week,…ago, in1980, in October, just now; 共同的时间状语:this morning, tonight,this April, now, once,before, already, recently, lately; 现在完成时的时间状语:for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet,till / until, up to now, in past years, always;

d. 现在完成时可表示持续到现在的动作或状态,动词一般是延续性的,如live, teach, learn, work, study, know。

e. 过去时常用的非持续性动词有come, go, leave, start, die, finish, become, get married等。 举例:I saw this film yesterday.(强调看的动作发生过了。)

I have seen this film. (强调对现在的影响,电影的内容已经知道了。) Why did you get up so early?(强调起床的动作已发生过了。) Who hasn't handed in his paper?(强调有卷子,可能为不公平竞争。) She has returned from Paris. 她已从巴黎回来了。 She returned yesterday. 她是昨天回来了。

He has been in the League for three years. (在团内的状态可延续) He has been a League member for three years. (是团员的状态可持续) He joined the League three years ago. (三年前入团,joined为短暂行为。)

句子中如有过去时的时间副词(如yesterday, last, week, in 1960)时,不能使用现在完成时,要用过去时。

f. 用于现在完成时的句型

(1)It is the first / second time… that…结构中的从句部分,用现在完成时。 It is the first time that I have visited the city.

(2)This is the… that…结构,that 从句要用现在完成时. This is the best film that I've (ever) seen.

注意:非延续性动词的否定形式可以与表示延续时间的状语连用。即动作不发生的状态是可以持续的。

g. Since用来说明动作起始时间,for用来说明动作延续时间长度。 I have lived here for more than twenty years. I have lived here since I was born.

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注意:并非有for作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。

I worked here for more than twenty years. (我现在已不在这里工作。)

小窍门:当现在完成时+一段时间,这一结构中,我们用下面的公式转化,很容易就能排除非延续动词在完成时中的误使。 h. since的四种用法

(1)since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。 I have been here since 1989. (2)since +一段时间+ ago

I have been here since five months ago. (3)since +从句

Great changes have taken place since you left. (4)It is +一段时间+ since从句

It is two years since I became a postgraduate student. 9)延续动词与瞬间动词

a. 延续动词表示经验、经历;瞬间动词表示行为的结果,不能与表示段的时间状语连用。 He has completed the work.他已完成了那项工作。 (表结果) b. 用于till / until从句的差异

延续动词用于肯定句,表示”做……直到……” 瞬间动词用于否定句,表示”到……,才……” He slept until ten o’clock. 他一直睡到10点。 10)过去完成时 概念:表示过去的过去 ----|-----------|-----------|----> 其构成是had +过去分词构成。

a. 在told, said, knew, heard, thought等动词后的宾语从句。 She said (that) she had never been to Paris.

b. 状语从句中在过去不同时间发生的两个动作中,发生在先,用过去完成时;发生在后,用一般过去时。

When the police arrived, the thieves had run away.

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c. 表示意向的动词,如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等,用过去完成时表示”原本…,未能…”

We had hoped that you would come, but you didn't.

d. 过去完成时的时间状语before, by, until , when, after, once, as soon as。 He said that he had learned some English before. 注意:had no … when还没等……就…… had no sooner… than刚……就…… e. 用一般过去时代替完成时

(1)两个动作如按顺序发生,又不强调先后,或用then,and,but 等连词时,多用一般过去时。 When she saw the mouse,she screamed.

(2)两个动作相继发生,可用一般过去时;如第一个动作需要若干时间完成,用过去完成时。 When I heard the news, I was very excited.

(3)叙述历史事实,可不用过去完成时,而只用一般过去时。 Our teacher told us that Columbus discovered America in 1492. 11)将来完成时

构成will / be going to do sth.

a. 状态完成:表示某事继续到将来某一时为止一直有的状态。

b. 动作完成:表示将来某一时或另一个将来的动作之前,已经完成的动作或一获得的经验。 They will have been married for 20 years by then. 12)现在进行时 现在进行时的基本用法:

a. 表示现在( 指说话人说话时) 正在发生的事情。 We are waiting for you.

b. 习惯进行:表示长期的或重复性的动作,说话时动作未必正在进行。 Mr. Green is writing another novel. (说话时并未在写,只处于写作的状态。) c. 表示渐变的动词有:get, grow, become, turn, run, go, begin等。 The leaves are turning red.

d. 与always, constantly, forever 等词连用,表示反复发生的动作或持续存在的状态,往往带

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有说话人的主观色彩。

You are always changing your mind. e. 不用进行时的动词 (1)事实状态的动词:

have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure, continue I have two brothers. (2)心理状态的动词:

Know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need, forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate I need your help. He loves her very much. (3)瞬间动词:

accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse. I accept your advice. (4)系动词:

seem, remain, lie, see, hear, smell, feel, taste, get, become, turn You seem a little tired. 13)过去进行时

a. 概念:表示过去某时正在进行的状态或动作。过去进行时的主要用法是描述一件事发生的背景;一个长动作发生的时候,另一个短动作发生。 b. 常用的时间状语:

this morning, the whole morning, all day yesterday, from nine to ten last evening, when, while When I got to the top of the mountain, the sun was shining. 14)将来进行时

a. 概念:表示将来某时进行的状态或动作,或按预测将来会发生的事情。 I’ll be meeting him sometime in the future.

注意:将来进行时不用于表示”意志”,不能说I'll be having a talk with her. b. 常用的时间状语:

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Soon, tomorrow, this evening,on Sunday, by this time,tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach. c. 一般现在时代替将来时

时间状语从句,条件句中,从句用一般现在时代替将来时

When, while, before, after, till, once, as soon as, so long as, by the time, if, in case (that), unless, even if, whether, the moment, the minute, the day, the year, immediately

He is going to visit her aunt the day he arrives in Beijing. 他一到北京,就去看他姨妈。 d. 表示现在已安排好的未来事项,行程等活动。

The museum opens at ten tomorrow.博物馆明天10点开门。(实际上每天如此。) e. 一般现在时代替过去时 (1)”书上说”,”报纸上说”等。

The newspaper says that it's going to be cold tomorrow. 报纸上说明天会很冷的。 (2)叙述往事,使其生动。

Napoleon’s army now advances and the great battle begins. f. 一般现在时代替完成时

(1)动词如hear, tell, learn, write , understand, forget, know, find , say,remember等用一般现在时代替完成时。

(2)句型“ It is … since…”代替”It has been … since …” g. 一般现在时代替进行时

句型:Here comes…, There goes… 如Look, here comes Mr. Li. h. 现在进行时代替将来时

(1)表示即将发生的或预定中计划好的活动。

Are you staying with us this weekend? 这周和我们一起度周末吗? (2)渐变动词,如:get, run, grow, become, begin及die。 He is dying. i. 时态一致

(1) 如果从句所叙述的为真理或不变的事实,则永远用现在时。 He told me last week that he is eighteen.

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(2) 宾语从句中的助动词ought, need, must, dare 时态是不变的。 He thought that I need not tell you the truth. j. 时态与时间状语

一般现在时的时间状语every …, sometimes,at …, on Sunday,

一般过去时esterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982, just now 一般将来时next…, tomorrow, in+时间,

现在完成时for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till/until, up to now, in past years, always, recently

过去完成时before, by, until, when, after, once, as soon as

过去进行时this morning, the whole morning, all day, yesterday, from nine to ten last evening… when, while

将来进行时soon, tomorrow, this evening, on Sunday, by this time, tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening

17.动词的语态

语态有两种:主动和被动语态。

主语是动作的发出者为主动语态;主语是动作的接受者为被动语态。

1)若宾语补足语是不带to的不定式,变为被动语态时,该不定式前要加”to”。此类动词为感官动词。如feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch等。 The teacher made me go out of the classroom.

--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher). We saw him play football on the playground. --> He was seen to play football on the playground. 2)情态动词+ be +过去分词,构成被动语态。

Coal can be used to produce electricity for agriculture and industry. 3)let的用法

a. 当let后只有一个单音节动词,变被动语态时,可用不带to的不定式。 They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.

b. 若let后宾补较长时,let通常不用被动语态,而用allow或permit代替。

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The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.

----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital. 4)短语动词的被动语态

短语动词是一个整体,不可丢掉后面的介词或副词。

This is a photo of the power station that has been set up in my hometown. My sister will be taken care of by Grandma. Such a thing has never been heard of before. 5)表示”据说”或”相信”的词组

believe, consider, declare, expect, feel , report, say, see, suppose, think, understand It is said that… 据说 It is reported that… 据报道 It is believed that…大家相信 It is hoped that…大家希望 It is well known that… 众所周知 It is thought that…大家认为 It is suggested that…据建议 It is taken granted that…被视为当然 It has been decided that… 大家决定 It must be remember that…务必记住的是 It is said that she will leave for Wuhan on Tuesday. 6)不用被动语态的情况

a. 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态:

appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place. After the fire, very little remained of my house.

说明:要想正确地使用被动语态,就须注意哪些动词是及物的,哪些是不及物的。特别是一词多义的动词往往有两种用法。解决这一问题唯有在学习过程中多留意积累。

b. 不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语:fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in,

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walk into, belong to。 This key just fits the lock.

Your story agrees with what had already been heard.

c. 无被动语态的系动词:appear, be become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn。 It sounds good.

d. 带同源宾语的及物动词,反身代词,相互代词,不能用于被动语态:die, death, dream, live, life。

She dreamed a bad dream last night.

e. 当宾语是不定式时,很少用于被动语态。 7)主动形式表示被动意义

a. 动词有:wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell, drive, blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build等。 The book sells well.这本书销路好。 This knife cuts easily.这刀子很好用。 I was to blame for the accident. Much work remains.

b. 在need, require, want, worth (形容词),deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。 The door needs repairing.= The door needs to be repaired. This room needs cleaning. 这房间应该打扫一下。 This book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。

c. 特殊结构:make sb. heard / understood (使别人能听见/理解自己),have sth. done (要某人做某事)。

8)被动形式表示主动意义

词组:be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries

He is graduated from a famous university. 他毕业于一所有名的大学。

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注意:

a. 表示同某人结婚,用marry sb.或get married to sb.都可。 He married a rich girl. He got married to a rich girl. b. need/ want/ require/ worth

注意:当need, want, require, worth(形容词)后面接doing也可以表示被动。 Your hair wants cutting.你的头发该理了。 The floor requires washing. 地板需要冲洗。 The book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。

18.主谓一致

主谓一致是指:

语法形式上要一致,即单复数形式与谓语要一致。

意义上要一致,即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。

就近原则,即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语,一般来说,不可数名词用动词单数,可数名词复数用动词复数。 There is much water in the thermos.

但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时,谓语动词用复数形式。 Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year. 1)并列结构作主语谓语用复数 Reading and writing are very important.

注意:当主语由and连结时,如果它表示一个单一的概念,即指同一人或同一物时,谓语动词用单数,and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。 The iron and steel industry is very important to our life. 2)主谓一致中的靠近原则

a. 当there be句型的主语是一系列事物时,谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。 There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk..

There are twenty boy-students and twenty-three girl-students in the class.

b. 当either… or…与neither… nor,连接两个主语时,谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。如

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果句子是由here, there引导,而主语又不止一个时,谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。 Either you or she is to go.

Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you. 3)谓语动词与前面的主语一致

当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as等词引起的短语时,谓语动词与前面的主语一致。

The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory. He as well as I wants to go boating. 4)谓语需用单数

a. 代词each和由every, some, no, any等构成的复合代词作主语,或主语中含有each, every谓语需用单数。

Each of us has a tape-recorder.

There is something wrong with my watch.

b. 当主语是一本书或一条格言时,谓语动词常用单数。 The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English. <<天方夜谭>>是英语爱好者熟悉的一本好书。

c. 表示金钱,时间,价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语 时,通常把这些名词看作一个整体,谓语一般用单数。(用复数也可,意思不变。)

Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations. Ten yuan is enough.

5)指代意义决定谓语的单复数

a. 在代词what, which, who, none, some, any, more, most, all等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定。

All is right.(一切顺利。)

All are present.(所有人都到齐了。)

b. 集体名词作主语时,谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定。如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee等词后用复数形式时,意为这个集体中的各个成员,用单数时表示该个集体。

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His family isn't very large.他家不是一个大家庭。 His family are music lovers.他的家人都是音乐爱好者。

注:但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry等在任何情况下都用复数形式。 Are there any police around?

c. 有些名词,如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数,有时看作复数。

A number of +名词复数+复数动词。 The number of +名词复数+单数动词。 A number of books have lent out. The majority of the students like English. 6)与后接名词或代词保持一致

a. 用half of, part of, most of, a portion of等词引起主语时,动词通常与of后面的名词,代词保持一致。

Most of his money is spent on books.

Most of the students are taking an active part in sports.

b. 在一些短语,如many a 或more than one所修饰的词作主语时,谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时,动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。 Many a person has read the novel.许多人都读过这本书。

More than 60 percent of the students are from the city.百分之六十多的学生都来自这个城市 c. 特殊词 (1)stop doing/to do

stop to do停止,中断做某事后去做另一件事。 stop doing停止做某事。

They stop to smoke a cigarette.他们停下来,抽了根烟。 I must stop smoking.我必须戒烟了。 (2)forget doing/to do

forget to do忘记要去做某事。(未做) forget doing忘记做过某事。(已做)

The light in the office is stil on. He forgot to turn it off.

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办公室的灯还在亮着,它忘记关了。(没有做关灯的动作) He forgot turning the light off.

他忘记他已经关了灯了。( 已做过关灯的动作) Don’t forget to come tomorrow. 别忘了明天来。 (to come动作未做) (3)remember doing/to do

remember to do 记得去做某事 (未做) remember doing记得做过某事(已做) Remember to go to the post office after school. 记着放学后去趟邮局。

Don’t you remember seeing the man before? 你不记得以前见过那个人吗? (4)regret doing/to do

regret to do对要做的事遗憾。(未做) regret doing对做过的事遗憾、后悔。(已做) I regret to have to do this, but I have no choice. 我很遗憾必须这样去做,我实在没有办法。 I don’t regret telling her what I thought. 我不为告诉她我的想法而后悔。 (5)cease doing/to do

cease to do长时间,甚至永远停做某事。 cease doing短时停止做某事,以后还会接着做。 That department has ceased to exist forever. 那个部门已不复存在。

The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by. 姑娘们在老师走过时,停了会聊天。 (6)try doing/to do

try to do努力,企图做某事。

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try doing试验,试着做某事。 You must try to be more careful. 你可要多加小心。

I tried gardening but didn’t succeed. 我试着种果木花卉,但未成功。 (7)go on doing/to do

go on to do做了一件事后,接着做另一件事。 go on doing继续做原来做的事。

After he had finished his maths,he went on to do his physics. 做完数学后,他接着去做物理。

Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one. 作完这个练习后,接着做其他的练习 (8)be afraid doing/to do

be afraid to do不敢,胆怯去做某事,是主观上的原因不去做,意为”怕”;

be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的,意为”生怕,恐怕”。 She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake. 她生怕被蛇咬着,而不敢在草丛中再走一步。 She was afraid to wake her husband. 她不敢去叫醒她丈夫。

She was afraid of waking her husband. 她生怕吵醒她丈夫。 (9)be interested doing/to do

interested to do 对做某事感兴趣,想了解某事。

interested in doing对某种想法感兴趣,doing通常为想法。 I shall be interested to know what happens. 我很想知道发生了什么事。 (想了解)

I’m interested in working in Switzerland. Do you have any idea about that? 我对在瑞士工作感兴趣。你想过这事吗?(一种想法)

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(10)mean doing/to do mean to do打算、想 mean doing意味着

I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to. 我想去,但是我父亲不肯让我去。

To raise wage means increasing purchasing power. 赠加工资意味着增加购买力。 (11)begin(start) doing/to do

①谈及一项长期活动或开始一种习惯时,使用doing. How old were you when you first started playing the piano? 你几岁时开始弹钢琴?

②begin, start用进行时时,后面动词用不定式to do I was beginning to get angry。 我开始生起气来。

③在attempt, intend, begin, start 后接know, understand, realize这类动词时,常用不定式to do。 I begin to understand the truth。 我开始明白真相。 ④物作主语时 It began to melt. ⑤感官动词+ doing/to do

感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do表示动作的完整性,真实性;+doing 表示动作的连续性,进行性 I saw him work in the garden yesterday.

昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调”我看见了”这个事实)

I saw him working in the garden yesterday.(强调”我见他正干活”这个动作) 昨天我见他正在花园里干活。

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19.虚拟语气

虚拟语气用来表示说话人的主观愿望或假想,所说的是一个条件,不一定是事实,或与事实相反。在条件句中分为两类,一类为真实条件句,一类为非真实条件句。

1)真实条件句用于陈述语气,假设的情况可能发生,其中if是如果的意思。

时态关系:一般现在时 shall/will + 动词原形

If he comes, he will bring his violin. 注意:

a. 在真实条件句中,主句不能用be going to表示将来,该用shall, will. (错) If you leave now, you are never going to regret it. (对) If you leave now, you will never regret it.

b. 表示真理时,主句谓语动词便不用shall/will +动词原形,而直接用一般现在时的动词形式。 2)非真实条件句表示的是假设的或实际可能性不大的情况。 时态:可以表示过去,现在和将来的情况。基本特点是时态退后。 a. 同现在事实相反的假设。 一般过去时should(would) +动词原形 If they were here, they would help you. b. 表示于过去事实相反的假设。

过去完成时should(would) have+ 过去分词 If she had worked harder, she would have succeeded.

The rice would not have been burnt if you had been more careful.

If my lawyer had been here last Saturday, he would have prevented me from going. If he had come yesterday, I should / would have told him about it. 含义:He did not come yesterday, so I did not tell him about it.

If he had not been ill and missed many classes, he would have made greater progress. 含义:He was ill and missed many lessons, so he did not make greater progress. c. 表示对将来的假想 一般过去时should+ 动词原形

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were+不定式would + 动词原形 should+ 动词原形

If you succeeded, everything would be all right. If you should succeed, everything would be all right. If you were to succeed, everything would be all right. 3)混合条件句

主句与从句的动作发生在不同的时间,主、从句谓语动词的虚拟语气形式因时间不同而不同。 If you had asked him yesterday, you would know what to do now. (从句与过去事实相反,主句与现在事实相反。)

If it had rained last night (过去), it would be very cold today (现在). 4)虚拟条件句的倒装

虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should或had, 可将if省略,再把were, should或had移到从句句首,实行倒装。 Were they here now, they could help us. =If they were here now, they could help us. Had you come earlier, you would have met him =If you had come earlier, you would have met him. Should it rain, the crops would be saved. =Were it to rain, the crops would be saved.

注意:在虚拟语气的从句中,动词be的过去时态一律用were,不用was,即在从句中be用were代替。

If I were you, I would go to look for him. 如果我是你,就会去找他。

If he were here, everything would be all right. 如果他在这儿,一切都会好的。

注:It is demanded/necessary/a pity+that…结构中的主语从句的谓语动词要用should加动词原形,should可省略。 句型:

(1)It is suggested/ordered/ proposed/required/demanded/requested/insisted+(should) do

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(2)It is important/ necessary/ natural/ strange/a pity/a shame/no wonder that…+ (should) do 如:It is suggested that we (should) hold a meeting next week. It is necessary that he (should) come to our meeting tomorrow. 5)在宾语从句中的应用

在表示命令、建议、要求等一类动词后面的从句中。

如order, suggest, propose, require, demand, request, insist, command, insist + (should) do I suggest that we (should) hold a meeting next week. He insisted that he (should ) be sent there.

注意:如suggest, insist不表示”建议” 或”坚持要某人做某事时”,即它们用于其本意”暗示、表明”、”坚持认为”时,宾语从句用陈述语气。 The guard at gate insisted that everybody obey the rules. 判断改错:

(错)You pale face suggests that you (should) be ill. (对)Your pale face suggests that you are ill. (错)I insisted that you ( should) be wrong. (对)I insisted that you were wrong. 6)在表语从句,同位语从句中的应用

在suggestion, proposal, idea, plan, order, advice等名词后面的表语从句、同位语从句中要用虚拟语气,即(should)+动词原形。

My idea is that we (should) get more people to attend the conference. I make a proposal that we (should) hold a meeting next week.

7)wish的用法-用于wish后面的从句,表示与事实相反的情况,或表示将来不太可能实现的愿望。

a. 其宾语从句的动词形式为: 从句动作先于主句动词动作(be的过去式为 were) 从句动作与主句动作同时发生(had + 过去分词) 将来不大可能实现的愿望

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真实状况 现在时 过去时 将来时 wish后 过去时 过去完成时 would/could +动词原形 I wish I were as tall as you.我希望和你一样高。 He wished he hadn’t said that. 他希望他没讲那样的话。 I wish it would rain tomorrow. 我希望明天下雨就好了。 b. wish to do表达法。 wish sb / sth to do

I wish to see the manager. = I want to see the manager.

I wish the manager to be informed at once. (= I want the manager to be informed at once.) 8)比较if only与only if

only if表示”只有”;if only则表示”如果……就好了”。If only也可用于陈述语气。 I wake up only if the alarm clock rings. 只有闹钟响了,我才会醒。 If only the alarm clock had rung.当时闹钟响了,就好了。 If only he comes early.但愿他早点回来。 9)It is (high) time that

It is (high) time that 后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形,但should不可省略。

It is time that the children went to bed. It is high time that the children should go to bed. 10)need”不必做”和”本不该做”

didn’t need to do表示:过去不必做某事,事实上也没做。. needn’t have done表示:过去不必做某事,但事实上做了。

John went to the station with the car to meet Mary, so she didn't need to walk back home. 约翰开车去车站接玛丽,所以她不必步行回家了。

John went to the station with the car to meet Mary, so she needn't have walked back home. 约翰开车去车站接玛丽,所以她本不必步行回家了。(Mary步行回家,没有遇上John的车。) 句子的种类

(一)按使用目的可分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。 1)陈述句(Declarative Sentences):说明一个事实或陈述一种看法。 Light travels faster than sound.光比声速度快。(说明事实)

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The film is rather boring.这部电影很乏味。(说明看法) 2)疑问句(Interrogative Sentences):提出问题。有以下四种: a. 一般疑问句(General Questions): Can you finish the work in time? 你能按时完成工作吗?

b. 特殊疑问句(W Questions; H Questions): Where do you live? 你住那儿?

How do you know that? 你怎么知道那件事? c. 选择疑问句(Alternative Questions): Do you want tea or coffee? 你是喝茶还是咖啡?

d. 反意疑问句(Tag-Questions): He doesn’t know her, does he? 他不认识她,对不对?

3)祈使句(Imperative Sentences):提出请求,建议或发出命令,例如: Sit down, please.请坐。 Don’t be nervous! 别紧张!

4)感叹句(Exclamatory Sentences):表示说话人惊奇、喜悦、愤怒等情绪,例如: What good news it is!多好的消息啊! (二)句子按其结构可以分为以下三类:

1)简单句(Simple Sentences):只包含一个主谓结构句子叫简单句,例如: She is fond of collecting stamps.她喜欢集邮。 (主)(谓)

2)并列句(Compound Sentences):包含两个或两个以上主谓结构的句子叫并列句,句与句之间通常用并列连词或分号来连接,例如:

The food was good, but he had little appetite. 食物很精美,但他却没什么胃口。 (主) (谓)(主)(谓)

3)复合句(Complex Sentences):包含一个主句从句和一个或几个从句的句子叫复合句,从

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句由从属连词引导,例如:主句从句

The film had begun when we got to the cinema. 我们到达电影院的时候,电影已经开演了。 (三)基本句型(Basic Sentence Patterns):英语中千变万化的句子归根结底都是由以下五种基本句型组合、扩展、变化而来的: 1)主+动(SV)例如: I work.我工作。

2)主+动+表(SVP)例如: John is busy.约翰忙。 3)主+动+宾(SVO)例如: She studies English.她学英语。 4)主+动+宾+补(SVOC)例如:

Time would prove me right. 时间会证明我是对的。 5)主+动+间宾+直宾(SVOiOd)例如:

My mother made me a new dress.我母亲给我做了一件新衣裳。

20.祈使句

祈使句用以表达命令,要求,请求,劝告等。

1)祈使句有两种类型,一种是以动词原形开头,在动词原形之前加do (但只限于省略第二人称主语的句子)。 Take this seat. Do be careful. 否定结构: Don’t move. Don’t be late.

2)第二种祈使句以let开头。 Let的反意疑问句 a. Let’s 包括说话者

Let’s have another try,shall we / shan’t we? = Shall we have another try?

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b. Let us 不包括说话者

Let us have another try,will you / won’t you? = Will you please let us have another try? 否定结构:

Let’s not talk of that matter. Let us not talk of that matter. 21.感叹句结构

感叹句通常有what, how引导,表示赞美、惊叹、喜悦、等感情。

what修饰名词,how修饰形容词,副词或动词,感叹句结构主要有以下几种:掌握它的搭配,即掌握了感叹句的重点。 How +形容词+ a +名词+陈述语序 How+形容词或副词+陈述语序 What +名词+陈述语序

What+a+形容词+名词+陈述语序 What+ 形容词+复数名词+ 陈述语序 What+ 形容词+不可数名词+陈述语序 How clever a boy he is! How lovely the baby is! What noise they are making! What a clever boy he is! What wonderful ideas (we have)! What cold weather it is!

感叹句的省略形式为:What a clever boy (he is)! 21.强调句结构

常考的强调句结构是it引导的句子。

It is (was)被强调部分+ that (who) +句子其他部分。 此结构强调的成分仅限于主语、宾语和状语。 It is from the sun that we get light and heat.

It was not until I had read your letter that I understood the true state of affairs.

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原句:My father did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening.

强调主语:It was my father who did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening. 强调宾语:It was the experiment that my father did in the lab yesterday evening.

强调时间:It was yesterday evening that my father did the experiment in the lab. (注意不用when) 强调地点:It was in the lab that my father did the experiment yesterday evening. It is /was +时间+ since…其中is<---> has beenwas <---> had been. 用助动词进行强调

强调句还有一种类型,就是用助动词do (did,does) 强调谓语。 She does like this horse.她的确喜欢这匹马。 Please do take care of yourself. 千万保重。

21.反意疑问句

1)陈述部分的主语是I,疑问部分要用aren’t I。 I’m as tall as your sister,aren’t I?

2)陈述部分的谓语是wish,疑问部分要用may +主语。 I wish to have a word with you, may I?

3)陈述部分用no, nothing, nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little等否定含义的词时,疑问部分用肯定含义。

The Swede made no answer, did he / she? Some plants never blown (开花), do they ?

4)含有ought to的反意疑问句,陈述部分是肯定的,疑问部分用shouldn’t / oughtn’t +主语。 He ought to know what to do, oughtn’t he? / shouldn’t he?

5)陈述部分有have to +v. (had to + v.),疑问部分常用don’t +主语(didn’t +主语)。 We have to get there at eight tomorrow, don’t we?

6)陈述部分的谓语是used to时,疑问部分用didn’t +主语或 usedn’t +主语。 He used to take pictures there, didn’t he? / usedn’t he? 7)陈述部分有had better + v. 疑问句部分用hadn’t you? You’d better read it by yourself, hadn’t you?

8)陈述部分有would rather +v.,疑问部分多用 wouldn’t +主语。

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He would rather read it ten times than recite it, wouldn’t he? 9)陈述部分有You’d like to +v. 疑问部分用wouldn’t +主语。 You’d like to go with me, wouldn’t you?

10)陈述部分有must的疑问句,疑问部分根据实际情况而定。 He must be a doctor, isn’t he?

You must have studied English for three years, haven’t you? / didn’t you? He must have finished it yesterday, didn’t he? 11)感叹句中,疑问部分用be +主语。 What colours, aren’t they? What a smell, isn’t it?

12)陈述部分由neither… nor, either… or 连接的并列主语时,疑问部分根据其实际逻辑意义而定。

Neither you nor I am engineer, are we?

13)陈述部分主语是指示代词或不定代词everything, that, nothing, this, 疑问部分主语用it。 Everything is ready, isn’t it?

14)陈述部分为主语从句或并列复合句,疑问部分有三种情况: a. 并列复合句疑问部分,谓语动词根据邻近从句的谓语而定。

Mr. Smith had been to Beijing for several times, he should have been in China now, shouldn’t he? b. 带有定语从句,宾语从句的主从复合句,疑问部分谓语根据主句的谓语而定: He is not the man who gave us a talk, is he? He said he wanted to visit Japan, didn’t he?

c. 上述部分主句谓语是think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine等引导的定语从句,疑问部分与宾语从句相对应构成反意疑问句。 I don’t think he is bright, is he?

We believe she can do it better, can’t she?

15)陈述部分主语是不定代词everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no one等,疑问部分常用复数they,有时也用单数he。

Everyone knows the answer, don’t they?(does he?) Nobody knows about it, do they? (does he?)

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16)带情态动词dare或need的反意疑问句,疑问部分常用need (dare )+主语。 We need not do it again, need we? He dare not say so, dare you?

当dare, need 为实义动词时,疑问部分用助动词do + 主语。 She doesn’t dare to go home alone, does she?

17)省去主语的祈使句的反意疑问句,疑问部分用will you。 Don’t do that again, will you? Go with me, will you / won’t you ?

注意:Let’s 开头的祈使句,后用shall we? Let us开头的祈使句,后用will you? Let’s go and listen to the music, shall we? Let us wait for you in the reading-room, will you?

18)陈述部分是”there be”结构的,疑问部分用there省略主语代词。 There is something wrong with your watch, isn’t there? There will not be any trouble, will there?

19)否定前缀不能视为否定词,其反意疑问句仍用否定形式。 It is impossible, isn’t it?

He is not unkind to his classmates, is he?

20)must在表”推测”时,根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句。 He must be there now, isn’t he?

It must be going to rain tomorrow, won’t it? 快速记忆表

陈述部分的谓语 I wish no, nothing, nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little等否定含义的词 ought to(肯定的) have to+v.(had to+v.) used to 58

疑问部分 aren’t I may + 主语 肯定含义 shouldn’t/ oughtn’t +主语 don’t +主语(didn’t +主语) didn’t +主语或 usedn’t +主语 had better + v. would rather + v. you’d like to + v. must 感叹句中 neither…nor, either…or 连接的并列主语 指示代词或不定代词everything, that, nothing, this 并列复合句 定语从句,宾语从句的主从复合句 think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine等引导 everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no one 情态动词dare或need dare, need 为实义动词 省去主语的祈使句 Let’s 开头的祈使句 Let us 开头的祈使句 there be 否定前缀不能视为否定词 must表”推测” hadn’t you wouldn’t +主语 wouldn’t +主语 根据实际情况而定 be +主语 根据其实际逻辑意义而定 主语用it 谓语根据邻近从句的谓语而定 根据主句的谓语而定 与宾语从句相对应的从句 复数they, 单数he need (dare ) +主语 do +主语 will you? shall we? will you? 相应的谓语动词+there(省略主语代词) 仍用否定形式 根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句 22.倒装

1)全部倒装

全部倒装是只将句子中的谓语动词全部置于主语之前。此结构通常只用与一般现在时和一般过去时。常见的结构有:

a. here, there, now, then, thus等副词置于句首, 谓语动词常用be, come, go, lie, run。 There goes the bell. Then came the chairman. Here is your letter.

b. 表示运动方向的副词或地点状语置于句首,谓语表示运动的动词。 Out rushed a missile from under the bomber. Ahead sat an old woman.

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注意:上述全部倒装的句型结构的主语必须是名词,如果主语是人称代词则不能完全倒装。 Here he comes. Away they went. 2)部分倒装

部分倒装是指将谓语的一部分如助动词或情态倒装至主语之前。如果句中的谓语没有助动词或情态动词,则需添加助动词do, does或did,并将其置于主语之前。

a. 句首为否定或半否定的词语,如no, not, never, seldom, little, hardly, at no time, in no way, not until…等。

Never have I seen such a performance.

Nowhere will you find the answer to this question. Not until the child fell asleep did the mother leave the room. b. 当Not until引出主从复合句,主句倒装,从句不倒装。 注意:如否定词不在句首不倒装。 I have never seen such a performance.

The mother didn’t leave the room until the child fell asleep. 3)以否定词开头作部分倒装

如Not only…but also, Hardly/Scarcely…when, No sooner… than Not only did he refuse the gift, he also severely criticized the sender. Hardly had she gone out when a student came to visit her. No sooner had she gone out than a student came to visit her.

注意:只有当Not only… but also连接两个分句时,才在第一个分句用倒装结构。如果置于句首的Not only… but also仅连接两个并列词语,不可用倒装结构。 Not only you but also I am fond of music. 4)so, either, nor作部分倒装

表示”也”、”也不” 的句子要部分倒装。 Tom can speak French. So can Jack. If you won't go, neither will I.

注意:当so引出的句子用以对上文内容加以证实或肯定时,不可用倒装结构。意为“的确如此”。

Tom asked me to go to play football and so I did.

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5)only在句首要倒装的情况

Only in this way, can you learn English well.

Only after being asked three times did he come to the meeting. 如果句子为主从复合句,则主句倒装,从句不倒装 Only when he is seriously ill, does he ever stay in bed. 6)as, though引导的倒装句

as / though引导的让步从句必须将表语或状语提前(形容词, 副词, 分词, 实义动词提前)。 注意:

a. 句首名词不能带任何冠词。

b. 句首是实义动词, 其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语,随实义动词一起放在主语之前。

Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.

注意:让步状语从句中,有though,although时,后面的主句不能有but,但是though 和yet可连用。 7)其他部分倒装

a. so… that 句型中的so位于句首时,需倒装。 So frightened was he that he did not dare to move an inch. b. 在某些表示祝愿的句型中: May you all be happy.

c. 在虚拟语气条件句中从句谓语动词有were, had, should等词,可将if省略,把were, had, should移到主语之前,采取部分倒装。 Were I you, I would try it again.

23.定语从句

定语从句(Attributive Clauses)在句中做定语,修饰一个名词或代词,被修饰的名词、词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后,由关系词(关系代词或关系副词)引出。 关系代词有:who, whom, whose, that, which等。 关系副词有:when, where, why等。

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1)关系代词引导的定语从句

关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词,并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系代词在定语从句中作主语时,从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。 a. who, whom, that

这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词,在从句中所起作用如下: Is he the man who/that wants to see you?

他就是你想见的人吗?(who/that在从句中作主语) He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday.

他就是我昨天见的那个人。(whom/that在从句中作宾语)

b. Whose用来指人或物(只用作定语,若指物,它还可以同of which互换),例如: They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down.那人车坏了,大家都跑过去帮忙。 Please pass me the book whose (of which) cover is green. 请递给我那本绿皮的书。 c. which, that

它们所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词,在从句中可作主语、宾语等,例如:

A prosperity which / that had never been seen before appears in the countryside. 农村出现了前所未有的繁荣。(which / that在句中作宾语)

The package (which / that) you are carrying is about to come unwrapped. 你拿的包快散了。(which / that在句中作宾语) 2)关系副词引导的定语从句

关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词,在从句中作状语。

a. 关系副词when, where, why的含义相当于”介词+ which”结构,因此常常和”介词+ which”结构交替使用,例如:

There are occasions when (on which) one must yield. 任何人都有不得不屈服的时候。 Beijing is the place where (in which) I was born. 北京是我的出生地。

Is this the reason why (for which) he refused our offer? 这就是他拒绝我们帮助他的理由吗? b. that代替关系副词

that可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why和”介词+ which”引导的定语从句,在口语中that常被省略,例如:

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His father died the year (that / when / in which) he was born.他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。 He is unlikely to find the place (that / where / in which) he lived forty years ago. 他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。 3)判断关系代词与关系副词

方法一:用关系代词,还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语,就必须要求用关系代词;而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。例如: This is the mountain village where I stayed last year. I’ll never forget the days when I worked together with you.

方法二:准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分(主、谓、宾、定、状),也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。

关系词的选择依据在从句中所做的成分,先行词在从句中作主、定、宾语时,选择关系代词 (who, whom, that, which, whose);先行词在从句中做状语时,应选择关系副词(where地点状语,when 时间状语,why原因状语) 。 4)限制性和非限制性定语从句

定语从句有限制性和非限制性两种。限制性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的部分,去掉它主句意思往往不明确;非限制性定语从句是先行词的附加说明,去掉了也不会影响主句的意思,它与主句之间通常用逗号分开,例如:

This is the house which we bought last month.这是我们上个月买的那幢房子。(限制性) The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.这幢房子很漂亮,是我们上个月买的。(非限制性)

a. 当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时,其后的定语从句通常是非限制性的,例如:

Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year. 查理·史密斯去年退休了,他曾经是我的老师。

My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden. 我去年买的的那幢房子带着个漂亮的花园。

This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 这本小说很动人,我已经读了三遍。 b. 非限制性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词,对其进行修饰,这时从句谓语动词要用第三

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人称单数。例如:

He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎没抓住我的意思,这使我心烦。

Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽,这就叫做蒸发。 说明:

a. 关系代词that和关系副词why不能引导非限制性定语从句。 b. 介词后面的关系词不能省略。 c. that前不能有介词。

d. 某些在从句中充当时间,地点或原因状语的“介词+关系词”结构可以同关系副词when和where互换。

This is the house in which I lived two years ago. This is the house where I lived two years ago.

Do you remember the day on which you joined our club? Do you remember the day when you joined our club? 5)as, which非限定性定语从句

由as, which引导的非限定性定语从句,as和which可代整个主句,相当于and this或and that。a. As一般放在句首,which在句中。 As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health. The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us.

b. as 和which在引导非限制性定语从句时,这两个关系代词都指主句所表达的整个意思,且在定语从句中都可以作主语和宾语。但不同之处主要有两点: (1)as引导的定语从句可置于句首,而which不可。

(2)as代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时,从句中的谓语必须是系动词;若为行为动词,则从句中的关系代词只能用which。 As的用法

a. the same… as;such…as中的as是一种固定结构,和……一样……。 I have got into the same trouble as he (has). b. as可引导非限制性从句,常带有“正如”。 As we know, smoking is harmful to one’s health.

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6)先行词和关系词二合一

Whoever spits in public will be punished here. (Whoever可以用anyone who代替)

The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school. (what可以用all that代替)

7)what/whatever/that...

Whoever spits in public will be punished here. (Whoever可以用anyone who代替)

The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school. (what可以用all that代替)

8)关系代词that的用法-不用that的情况 a. 在引导非限定性定语从句时。 b. 介词后不能用。

We depend on the land from which we get our food. We depend on the land that/which we get our food from. 9)只能用that作为定语从句的关系代词的情况 a. 在there be 句型中,只用that,不用which。

b. 在不定代词,如:anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等作先行词时,只用that,不用which。

c. 先行词有the only, the very修饰时,只用that。 d. 先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时,只用that。. e. 先行词既有人,又有物时。

24.名词性从句

在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词从句(Noun Clauses)。名词从句的功能相当于名词词组,它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等,因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能,名词从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。 引导名词性从句的连接词分为三类:

连接词:that,whether,if 不充当从句的任何成分)

连接代词:what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which. 连接副词:when, where, how, why

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1)不可省略的连词 a. 介词后的连词

b. 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。 That she was chosen made us very happy. We heard the news that our team had won.

比较:whether与if均为是否的意思。但在下列情况下,whether不能被if取代: (1)whether引导主语从句并在句首 (2)引导表语从句 (3)whether从句作介词宾语 (4)从句后有or not

Whether he will come is not clear.

大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末,用it充当形式主语。 It is not important who will go.

It is still unknown which team will win the match. 2)名词性that-从句

a. 由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。That只起连接主句和从句的作用,在从句中不担任任何成分,本身也没有词义。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语,例如:

主语:That he is still alive is sheer luck. 他还活着全靠运气。

宾语:John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday. 约翰说他星期三要到伦敦去。 表语:The fact is that he has not been seen recently. 事实是近来谁也没有见过他。 同位语:The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office. 近来谁也没有见过他,这一事实令办公室所有的人不安。 形容词宾语:I am glad that you are satisfied with your job. 你对工作满意我感到很高兴。

b. That-从句作主语通常用it作先行词,而将that-从句置于句末,例如:

It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure.很清楚,整个计划注定要失败。

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3)用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系 a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句 It is necessary that…有必要…… It is important that…重要的是…… It is obvious that… 很明显…… b. It + be + -ed分词+ that-从句 It is believed that…人们相信…… It is known to all that…从所周知…… It has been decided that… 已决定…… c. It + be +名词+ that-从句

It is common knowledge that……是常识 It is a surprise that… 令人惊奇的是…… It is a fact that… 事实是…… d. It +不及物动词+ that-分句 It appears that…似乎…… It happens that…碰巧……

It occurred to me that… 我突然想起…… 4)名词性wh-从句

a. 由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。Wh-词包括who, whom,. whose, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever等连接代词和where, when, how, why等连接副词。Wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外,还可充当介词宾语、宾语补语和间接宾语等,例如: 主语:How the book will sell depends on its author. 书销售如何取决于作者本人。 直接宾语:In one's own home one can do what one likes. 在自己家里可以随心所欲。 间接宾语:The club will give whoever wins a prize. 俱乐部将给得胜者设奖。

表语:My question is who will take over president of the Foundation.我的问题是谁将接任该基金会主席职位。

宾语补足语:She will name him whatever she wants to. 她高兴给他起什么名字就取什么名字。 同位语:I have no idea when he will return.

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我不知道他什么时候回来。

形容词宾语:I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.我尚不能肯定她为什么拒绝他们的邀请。

介词宾语:That depends on where we shall go. 那取决于我们去哪儿。

b. Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语,而将wh-从句置于句末,例如: It is not yet decided who will do that job. 还没决定谁做这项工作。

It remains unknown when they are going to get married.他们何时结婚依然不明。 5)if, whether引导的名词从句 a. yes-no型疑问从句

从属连词if, whether引导的名词从句是由一般疑问句或选择疑问转化而来的,因此也分别被称为yes-no型疑问句从句和选择型疑问从句,其功能和wh-从句的功能相同,例如: 主语:Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved. 这一计划是否可行还有等证实。 宾语:Let us know whether / if you can finish the article before Friday. 请让我们知道你是否能在星期五以前把文章写完。

表语:The point is whether we should lend him the money. 问题在于我们是否应该借钱给他。 同位语:They are investigating the question whether the man is trustworthy. 他们调查他是否值得信赖。

形容词宾语:She’s doubtful whether we shall be able to come.她怀疑我们是否能够前来。 介词宾语:I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness.我担心他是否能度过疾病的危险期。 b. 选择性疑问从句

选择性疑问从句由关联词if/whether…or或whethe…or not构成,例如:

Please tell me whether / if they are Swedish or Danish. 请告诉我他们是瑞典人还是丹麦人。 I don’t care whether you like the plan or not.我不在乎你是否喜欢该计划。 6)否定转移

a. 将think, believe, suppose, expect, fancy, imagine等动词后面宾语从句的否定词转移到主句

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中,即主句的谓语动词用否定式,而从句的谓语动词用肯定式。 I don’t think I know you.我想我并不认识你。 I don’ t believe he will come.我相信他不回来。

注意:若谓语动词为hope,宾语从句中的否定词不能转移。 I hope you weren’t ill. 我想你没有生病吧。 b. 将seem, appear 等后的从句的否定转移到前面。

It doesn’t seem that they know where to go. 看来他们不知道往哪去。

It doesn’t appear that we’ll have a sunny day tomorrow. 看来我们明天不会碰上好天气。 c. 有时将动名词,介词短语或整个从句的否定转变为对谓语动词的否定。 I don’t remember having ever seen such a man.

我记得从未见过这样一个人。 (not否定动名词短语 having…)

It’s not a place where anyone would expect to see strange characters on the street. 在这里,人们不会想到在街上会碰上陌生的人。 (anyone 作主语,从句中的谓语动词不能用否定形式。) d. 有时状语或状语从句中否定可以转移到谓语动词前。

The ant is not gathering this for itself alone. (否定状语)蚂蚁不只是为自己采食。

He was not ready to believe something just because Aristotle said so. (否定because状语) 他并不因亚里斯多德说过如何如何,就轻信此事。

25.状语从句

1)地点状语从句

地点状语从句通常由where, wherever 引导。 Where I live there are plenty of trees. 我住的地方树很多。 2)方式状语从句

方式状语从句通常由as, (just) as…so…, as if, as though引导。

a. as, (just) as…so…引导的方式状语从句通常位于主句后,但在(just) as…so…结构中位于句首,这时as从句带有比喻的含义,意思是正如……,就像,多用于正式文体,例如: Always do to the others as you would be done by. 你希望人家怎样待你,你就要怎样待人。

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b. as if, as though

两者的意义和用法相同,引出的状语从句谓语多用虚拟语气,表示与事实相反,有时也用陈述语气,表示所说情况是事实或实现的可能性较大。译作“仿佛……似的”,“好像……似的”,例如:They completely ignore these facts as if (as though) they never existed. 他们完全忽略了这些事实,就仿佛它不存在似的。(与事实相反,谓语用虚拟语气。) It looks as if the weather may pick up very soon.

看来天气很快就会好起来。(实现的可能性较大,谓语用陈述语气。)

说明:as if / as though也可以引导一个分词短语、不定式短语或无动词短语,例如: He stared at me as if seeing me for first time. 他目不转睛地看着我,就像第一次看见我似的。 3)原因状语从句

a. because语势最强,用来说明人所不知的原因,回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知,就用as或since。 I didn’t go, because I was afraid.

Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.

b. 由because引导的从句如果放在句末,且前面有逗号,则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因,而是多种情况加以推断,就只能用for。 He is absent today, because / for he is ill. He must be ill, for he is absent today. 4)目的状语从句

表示目的状语的从句可以由that, so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case等词引导,例如: You must speak louder so that /in order that you can be heard by all. 5)结果状语从句

结果状语从句常由so…that 或such…that引导,掌握这两个句型,首先要了解so和such与其后的词的搭配规律。

such是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so是副词,只能修饰形容词或副词。so还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little连用,形成固定搭配。 so foolish

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such a fool

such a nice flower

so nice a flower

so many / few flowers so much / little money. so many people

such nice flowers such rapid progress

such a lot of people

(so many已成固定搭配,a lot of虽相当于many,但a lot of为名词性的,只能用such搭配。) so…that与such…that之间的转换既为so与such之间的转换。 6)条件状语从句

连接词主要有 if, unless, as/so long as, on condition that 等。.

if引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。 unless = if not. If you are not too tied, let’s go out for a walk. 7)让步状语从句 a. though, although

注意:当有though, although时,后面的从句不能有but,但是 though 和yet可连用 Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain. 伤口虽愈合,但伤疤留下了。(谚语) b. as, though 引导的倒装句

as / though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前(形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前)。 Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do. = Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do. 注意:

a. 句首名词不能带任何冠词。

b. 句首是实义动词,其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语,随实义动词一起放在主语之前。

Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily. = Though he tries hard, he never seems…

虽然他尽了努力,但他的工作总做的不尽人意。 c. ever if, even though.即使

We’ll make a trip even though the weather is bad. d. whether…or-不管……都

Whether you believe it or not, it is true.

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e. ”no matter +疑问词” 或”疑问词+后缀ever” No matter what happened, he would not mind. Whatever happened, he would not mind. 替换:no matter what = whatever no matter who = whoever no matter when = whenever no matter where = wherever no matter which = whichever no matter how = however 注意:

a. no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句。 b. as, when 引导短暂性动作的动词。

Just as / Just when / When I stopped my car, a man came up to me.

c. 当从句的动作发生于主句动作之前,只能用when 引导这个从句,不可用as或while。 When you have finished your work, you may have a rest.

d. 从句表示“随时间推移”连词能用as,不用when或while。 As the day went on, the weather got worse. 日子一天天过去,天气越变越坏。 e. 比较until和till

此两个连词意义相同。肯定形式表示的意思是“做某事直至某时”,动词必须是延续性的。否定形式表达的意思是“直至某时才做某事”。动词为延续性或非延续性都可以。正确使用这两个连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定式还是否定式。 肯定句:I slept until midnight. 我一直睡到半夜时醒了。

Wait till I call you.等着我叫你。(在肯定句中可用before代替 Let’s get in the wheat before the sun sets.)

否定句:She didn’t arrive until 6 o’clock. 她直到6点才到。 f. Until可用于句首,而till通常不用于句首。 Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened.

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直到你告诉我以前,出了什么事我一点也不知道。 g. Until when 疑问句中,until要放在句首。 ---Until when are you staying? 你呆到什么时候? --- Until next Monday. 呆到下周一。 注意:否定句可用另外两种句式表示。 (1)Not until …在句首,主句用倒装。

Not until the early years of the 19th century did man know what heat is. 直到19 世纪初,人类才知道热能是什么。 (2)It is not until… that…表示“一……就……”结构

hardly/scarcely…when/before, no sooner…than和as soon as都可以表示“一……就……”的意思,例:I had hardly /scarcely got home when it began to rain.

注意:如果hardly, scarcely或no sooner置于句首,句子必须用倒装结构: Hardly/Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.

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