IJRDM35,7
Corporatebrandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
Astudyofthestoreasabrand,storebrands
andmanufacturerbrands
RitaMartenson
¨teborgUniversity,Go¨teborg,SwedenSchoolofBusiness,EconomicsandLaw,Go
Abstract
Purpose–Tostudytheimpactofthecorporatestoreimageoncustomersatisfactionandstore
loyaltyingroceryretailing.Corporate(store)imageisdefinedasthecombinedeffectofhowtheretailerasabrand,manufacturerbrands,andstorebrandsareperceived.Thereasonforincludingstorebrandsandmanufacturerbrandsinthisdefinitionisthattheimageandequityofretailerbrandsdependsontheproductbrandstheycarryandtheequityofthoseproductbrands.
Design/methodology/approach–Amailsurveytoconsumers,1,000usableanswers.Thetestoftheproposedmodelwasbasedonasimplepathmodelthatrelatedthelatentvariablestothedependentmanifestvariablestoreloyalty.
Findings–Mostimportantforcustomersatisfactionisthestoreasabrand.Retailersmustbegoodatretailing.Customersaresatisfiedwhenthestoreisneatandpleasantandwhentheyfeelthatthestoreunderstandstheirneeds.Onlycertaincustomersegmentsareinterestedinstorebrands.Satisfiedcustomersareloyal.
Researchlimitations/implications–Alimitationisthewaystoreloyaltywasmeasured,i.e.asanestimateofhowmuchtherespondent’shouseholdspentinthemainstore.Anotherlimitationisthefactthatthestudyisbasedon“manufacturerbrands”and“storebrands,”ratherthanspecificallymentionedrealbrands.
Practicalimplications–Thegrowthrateforstorebrandsingroceryretailingistwiceashighasformanufacturerbrands.Wiselylaunched,storebrandsmaybeprofitabletoretailers.However,althoughgrossmarginsaremuchhigherforstorebrandsthanformanufacturerbrands,netmarginsareequal.Itisthereforeimportanttofindouthowimportantstorebrandsareinacustomerperspective.Afterall,retailersprosperwhentheyhavesatisfiedandloyalcustomers.
Originality/value–Thepaperisbasedonamoreholisticdefinitionofcorporatestoreimagethanpriorstudies,whichshouldgiveamoreaccuratepictureoftherelativeimportanceofthestoreasabrand,andmanufactureraswellasstorebrands.
KeywordsBrands,Customersatisfaction,Customerloyalty,RetailingPapertypeResearchpaper
544
InternationalJournalofRetail&DistributionManagementVol.35No.7,2007pp.544-555
qEmeraldGroupPublishingLimited0959-0552
DOI10.1108/09590550710755921
Introductionandpurpose
Today,someofthemostsuccessfulcorporatebrandsintheworldareretailbrands.Theseretailersmakelargeinvestmentstobuildbrandimageandbrandequity.Onepartofthisbrandingstrategyistolaunchstorebrands.Oneoftheleadinggroceryretailers,theBritishsupermarketchainTesco,hasdevelopedalookandfeelforitsown-brandproductsthatreflectitsbrandvaluesratherthanthevaluesoftheestablishedbrandsineachcategory(WolffOlins,n.d.).Acoherentlookandfeelthatreflectsthevaluesofthecorporatebrandisassumedtohaveapositiveimpactonthestorebrandscarryingthecorporatename.Beforethat,theTescostorebrandshad
apackagingstylethatreflectedtheexistingcuesinthatcategory,effectively“me-too-ing”theestablishedbrands,ratherthanreflectinganyofthevaluesoftheTescobranditself.ThecasestudyofTesco,aswellasprioracademicstudies,suggeststhatafavorablestoreimagemayinfluenceconsumers’perceptionsofstorebrands.Theprofitabilityofstorebrandsversusmanufacturerbrandsvariesbetweenproductcategories.AstudybyMcKinseyshowedthatwhenretailersintroducestorebrandstheimpactonprofitscanbeanincreaseby80percentinthebestcategoryanda
´metetal.,1995).Whenallcostanddeclineof1percentintheworstcategory(Gle
revenueitemsaretakenintoaccount,storebrandsareoftenlessprofitablethanbrandedequivalents.Since,retailersallocateanexcessiveamountofshelfspacetostorebrandsinrelationtobrandleaders,theformergeneratelowerratiosofprofitpercubicmeterinalmosthalfofthecategoriesanalyzed.Anobviousquestionis,therefore,towhatextentstorebrandscontributetothecorporateimageofretailersandmakethestoremoreattractivetoitscustomers.
ThevalueoftheEuropeanstorebrandmarketisestimatedtoe100billion.RecentdatafromNielsen(2005)showsthatstorebrandshaveahighermarketshareinEurope(23percentvsanoverallaverageof17percent).Themarketswithhighestsharein2005wereSwitzerland45percent,Germany30percent,GreatBritain28percent,Spain26percent,Belgium25percent,andSweden14percent.Thegrowthrateofstorebrandsistwiceashighasthatoftraditionalmanufacturerbrands(2percent).Themostimportantproductcategoriesarecoldproducts(milk,cheese,andready-to-eatfood),paper,plastics,wrappings,etc.Themarketsharesarehighestinfrozenfood(25percent),andanimalfood(21percent),whereastheyarethelowestinbabyfood(2percent),cosmetics(2percent),andhygieneproducts(5percent).StorebrandshavebeenmuchmoresuccessfulinEuropethanintheUSA,andresearchersaswellaspractitionersattributethedifferencetothehigherqualityofEuropeanstorebrands(Erdemetal.,2004).Theaveragestorebrandsellsforapproximately30percentlessthannationalbrands,andnationalbrandpromotionstypicallydeliverdiscountsof20-30percent(Ailawadietal.,2001;Nielsen,2005).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatretailershavedifferenttypesofstorebrands,suchaspremiumstorebrandssoldunderthecorporatename,andbudgetbrandswithnomentionofthestorename.Academicresearchersusuallydonotdistinguishbetweendifferenttypesofstorebrandsintheirstudies,althoughvarioustestspublishedbyleadingnewspapersaswellasbycookingmagazinesshowthatstorebrandssometimesarethebestbrandsinthecategoryandsometimestheyhaveaverylowquality.
Theriseoftheretailerasabrandisconsideredasoneofthemostimportanttrendsinretailing(Grewaletal.,2004).Itisforexampleofcriticalimportancetounderstandhowthebrandassortmentsoldbyretailersisrelatedtotheirimage(AilawadiandKeller,2004).Bycarryingwell-knownandpopularmanufacturerbrands,retailersincreasetheirownimageaswellasequity.Whentheysubstitutethesewell-knownbrandswiththeirownbrands,theyalsoinfluencetheirpositiononthemarket.AsemphasizedbyAilawadiandKeller(2004)aswellasbyGrewaletal.(2004),therearethreecriticalfacetsthatneedtobeexaminedforustounderstandmoreabouttheroleofstorebrandsinbuildingretailerbrandequity,namely:theroleof(national)manufacturerbrands,theroleofstorebrandsandtherolethatthestoreitselfplaysasabrand.Thepurposeofthispaperistoinvestigatethesethreecriticalfacetstoseetheirimpactoncustomersatisfactionaswellasstoreloyaltyinthegrocerymarket.
Brandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
545
IJRDM35,7
546
Theoreticalframeofreference
Researchoncorporateidentity-image-reputation(Barnettetal.,2006)suggeststhatstoreswithfavorablestoreimagecreatecustomersatisfactionwhichinturnleadstostoreloyalty.Thecorporateimageofthestoreisdefinedasacombinationofthestoreasabrand,andtheselectionofstorebrandsandmanufacturerbrandsofferedbythestore(Grewaletal.,2004).ThemodelusedinthisstudyisinfluencedbythemodeldevelopedbyGrewaletal.(2004)(Figure1).Themodelshowsthatthecorporateimageofthestoreconsistsofthestoreasabrand,themanufacturerbrandscarriedaswellasthestorebrands.Ifconsumerslikehowtheretaileroperatesasaretailerandthechoiceofbrandsinthestore,theyareassumedtobesatisfiedwiththestore.Satisfiedcustomersareassumedtobeloyalcustomers.
Corporate(store)image
Thecorporatebrandisavaluableintangibleasset,thatisdifficulttoimitate,andwhichmayhelptoachievesustainedsuperiorfinancialperformance(RobertsandDowling,2002).Thecorporatebrandandtheproductbrandplaydifferentrolesintheorganization(Aaker,1996).Theendbenefitofthecorporatebrandistoprovideavaluepropositionorcustomerrelationshipbasedontheorganizationalassociations,toprovidecredibilitytootherbrands(expertise,trustworthiness,andliking),andtobeavehicletoclarifyandcrystallizetheorganizationalcultureandvaluesinsidetheorganization(Aaker,1996).
Thecorporateimageisbasedonwhatpeopleassociatewiththecompanyoralltheinformation(perceptions,inferences,andbeliefs)aboutitthatpeoplehold.Whereas,someresearchersuseimageandreputationassubstitutes,otherssuchasFombrun(1996)seereputationastheesteeminalong-termperspectivethatthecompanyhas,asopposedtoimagethatcanbemoreshort-terminnature.Inthispaper,imageandreputationareusedassubstitutes,sinceitislikelythattheearlystudiesonstoreimagewouldhaveusedtheconcept“reputation”hadtheybeendonetoday.Acompany’sreputationcanactasasignalthatsummarizesitspastbehaviorandwhichcanbeusedtoforecastfutureactions.Ageneralassumptioninthebrandingliteratureisthatafavorablebrandimagewillhaveapositiveimpactonconsumers’behaviortowardsthebrand,suchastheopportunitytocommandpremiumprices,buyerswhoaremoreloyal,andmorepositiveword-of-mouth.Translatedtoaretailingcontext,itislikelythatafavorablestoreimageincreasessatisfactionwiththestorewhichinturnincreasesstoreloyalty(Osman,1993;BloemeranddeRuyter,1998).
Despitesuchacentralpositionoftheimageconcept,thereisasurprisinglackofevidenceonhow,when,andwhattypesofcorporateassociationsaffectproductresponses(DacinandBrown,1997).Whenconsumershavedifficultiesevaluatingastorebrandoramanufacturerbrandperse,theirperceptionofthecompany’sabilitytoproduceorberesponsiblefortheproductionofthatproductmightinfluencetheirinterestinthebrandinquestion(DacinandBrown,1997).Whencorporateassociationsprovidecuesaboutthelikelystandingofanewbrand,theywillinfluenceconsumer
CORPORATE IMAGE:- The Store as a Brand- Manufacturer Brands- Store BrandsSatisfaction with Main StoreStore Loyalty -Main StoreFigure1.
Proposedmodel
perceptionsofthequalityofthebrand.Themainpurposeofretailersistobegoodatretailingandnotmanufacturing.Asaconsequence,itisunclearwhatadvantageconsumersseeinbeingofferedstorebrandsiftherearegoodmanufacturerbrandsalreadyavailableonthemarket.
Retailersandtraditionalmanufacturershavechosendifferentbrandarchitectures(brandportfoliostructures).Retailershavebrandedhousesandusetheircorporatenamestopromotetheirmostimportantstorebrands.Manufacturersofgroceryproductshavehousesofbrands,whereeachbrandcompetesonitsownmerits.Usually,nomentionismadeofthemanufacturerbehindthebrand.Generally,thebrandedhousestrategyisconsideredmoreefficientthanthehouseofbrandstrategy,andshouldbethedefaultalternativeaccordingtobrandingexpertssuchasDavidAaker.Themostwell-knowncompanypursuingthebrandedhousestrategyisP&G.DespitethefactthatP&GwasthelargestadvertiseramongmanufacturersinSwedenin2003,itsadvertisingbudgetwasonlyhalfofthebudgetsoftheleadinggroceryretailers.In2005,boththelargest(ICA)andthesecondlargest(Coop)groceryretailersinSwedenhadlargeradvertisingbudgetsthanP&G.P&Gaswellasothermultinationalconsumerpackagedgoodsmanufacturershavebeenforcedtoreducetheirbrandportfoliosandtoconcentrateonfewerbrandstoremaincompetitive.Nevertheless,theystillspreadtheirbudgetsoveralargernumberofbrandsthanretailersdo.Signalingtheorycanpartlyexplainthepowerofconcentratingadvertisingbudgetstoonename,productorcorporatename(seeRaoetal.,1999forareview).Thetheoryisbasedontheassumptionthatconsumersmaythinkthatcompaniesspendingalotofmoneyonadvertisinghavealottolooseiftheyselllow-qualityproducts.Retailers,consequently,havethemosttolooseiftheyputtheirnameonproductswithalowquality.Theyriskeverythingsincetheyuseacorporatebrandingstrategy,whereasP&GdoesnotrisktheP&Gcorporatebrandnamebutonlyaproductbrandname.
Thestoreasabrand
Storeimageinthesenseofthestoreasabrandisusuallymeasuredasconsumers’perceptionsofstoreperformance.Thischoiceisbasedonthenotionofavalue-perceptdiversity,i.e.customersarelikelytobemoresatisfiedwiththeofferingastheabilityoftheofferingtoprovideconsumerswhattheyneed,want,ordesireincreasesrelativetothecostsincurred(Johnson,1998;SzymanskiandHenard,2001).Storeimagecanbedefinedasthewaythatconsumersviewthestore,i.e.theirimpressionorperceptionofthestore(forareviewofvariousdefinitionsofstoreimageseeHartmanandSpiro,2005).OneoftheearlieststudiesofstoreimagewasdonebyMartineau(1958),andtheconcepthasbeenoneoftheprimaryconceptualtopicsinacademicretailingresearch(Mayer,1989).Severalstudiesdemonstratethatcorporateimageaffectsconsumerproductjudgmentsandresponsesinapositivemanner(DacinandBrown,1997).AFrenchstudyshowedthatthestoreimageoffersrecognition,familiarity,confidence,andotherassociationsthatmakeiteasierforconsumerstomakethedecisiontotrytheproduct(DimitriadisandLangeard,1990).Althoughthereisareciprocalinfluencebetweenstoreimageandindividualstorebrandimage,theinfluenceisstrongerfromthestoretothebrandthanintheoppositedirection.Inotherwords,whenconsumershavetriedthestorebrand,theiropinionaboutitwillhaveapotentialinfluenceonthestoreimage,butitismorelikelythattheimageofthestorealreadyinfluencedconsumers’willingnesstotrythebrand.Anotherresultwasthatretailers’corporatebrandsarenotcrediblefor
Brandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
547
IJRDM35,7
548
certaintypesofproducts,likehomeappliancesorchampagne,andthatstorebrandswillnotbeboughtforcertainhighinvolvementconsumption-usagecontexts.Thereare,however,alsostudiesshowinganegativeeffectfromcorporateimage.Onestudyshowedthatthequalityratingofstorebrandsincreasedby21percent,ifthestorehadanattractivestoreatmosphere(Richardsonetal.,1996).Thus,itisnotonlythequalityoftheproductsofferedbutalsohowthestoreismanagedthatinfluencetheimageofstorebrands(butnotmanufacturerbrands).
Storebrands
Tobeacompetitiveandtrustedalternative,storebrandsmustbeperceivedtobeanattractivealternative(substitute)tomanufacturerbrands.Thefactthatmorethan50percentofUSmanufacturersofbrandedconsumerpackagegoodsmakestorebrandsandprivatelabelsaswellmaynotbeenough(QuelchandHarding,1996).Researchhasshownthatidenticalproductssoldunderdifferentbrandnameswillbeperceiveddifferentlybyconsumers(Sullivan,1990;Sullivan,1998).
Priorresearchhasfoundthatstorebrandscontributetogreaterstoredifferentiationratherthantogreaterpricesensitivityinthemarket(SudhirandTalukdar,2004).Otherresearchersconcludethatitisimportantforretailerstoretainabalancebetweenstorebrandsandnationalbrandstoattractandretainthemostprofitablecustomers(AilawadiandHarlam,2004).Nationalbrandsaretrafficbuildersandareductionofnationalbrandchoicesmaymakeastorelessattractivetoprofitablecustomers.Thereislittleevidenceaboutthedifferenceinnetmarginsbetweenstorebrandsandnationalbrandswhentheretailer’sdirectproductcostsaretakenintoaccount(AilawadiandHarlam,2004).Consequently,thereismuchmorepriorresearchinsupportofthepositiveimpactonstoreloyaltyasaconsequenceofcustomersatisfactionthantherearestudiesdemonstratingthepositiveroleofstorebrandsforcustomerloyalty.Manufacturerbrands
Traditionally,retailershaveusedmanufacturerbrandstogenerateconsumerinterest,patronage,andstoreloyalty(AilawadiandKeller,2004).Inthatrespect,manufacturerbrandshaveoperatedalmostasingredientbrands.Competitivepricesonattractiveleadingbrandshavepulledconsumerstothestore.Manufacturerbrandssoldbyalmostallstoresdohowevernotdifferentiatetheindividualstore,whichisaproblemonmarketswithintensepricecompetitionbetweenstores.Earlierstudieshave,asexpected,shownthatconsumerstrustthequalityofmanufacturerbrandsthemost,andthequalityofgenericstheleast,andthatthesituationistheoppositeregardingtheriskofpayingtoomuchornot(Dunnetal.,1986).Inboththeserespects,storebrandstakeamiddleposition.Consumers’relianceonextrinsiccuesinqualityassessmentwasearlieracleardisadvantageforretailers,becausestorebrandsusedtosufferfromextrinsiccueinadequacies(e.g.packaging).AstudybyRichardsonetal.(1994)showedthatregardlessoftheproductcategoryorrealingredientdifferencesmanipulated,ingredientsdisclosedtobeofnationalmanufacturereceivedsignificantlymorefavorablequalityassessmentthaningredientsdisclosedtobeofstorebrandorigin.Theyalsofoundthatrealdifferencesiningredientsbetweennationalandstorebrandshadlessimpactandweremorelikelytoaffectconsumers’judgmentswhentheingredientsweredisclosedtobesponsoredbyanationalmanufacturer.Leadingmanufacturershaveastrongreputationfortheirabilitytoproducehighqualitybrands.
Satisfaction
Customersatisfactioncanbeseenasafulfillmentofconsumers’consumptiongoalsasexperiencedanddescribedbyconsumers(Oliver,2006).Satisfactionisconsumers’“judgmentthataproductorservicefeature,ortheproductorserviceitself,provided(orisproviding)apleasurablelevelofconsumption-relatedfulfillment,includinglevelsofunder-orover-fulfillment”(Oliver,1997,p.13).Areviewof50empiricalstudiesoncustomersatisfactionshowedthattheantecedentstosatisfactionvariedbetweenstudies(SzymanskiandHenard,2001).Usuallyexpectations,disconfirmationofexpectations,performance,affect,andequitywereusedtomodelbuyers’levelofsatisfaction.Since,storeimageisusuallymeasuredasstoreperformance,itwasnaturaltochooseperformanceinthisstudyaswell.
Storeloyalty
Theultimategoalofmostretailersistohaveloyalcustomers.Loyaltycanbeanoutcomeofcustomersatisfaction(Oliver,1997).Inareviewofearlierstudies,therewasapositivesignificantcorrelationbetweensatisfactionandrepeat-purchasein15ofthe17correlationsstudied(SzymanskiandHenard,2001).Itisthereforemostlikelythatsatisfiedcustomerswillbemoreloyaltotheirmainstore.
Methodology
Thestudyisbasedonasurveymailedtoanationallyrepresentativesampleofconsumersaged30-50years.Theseagegroupsareinalife-cyclephasecharacterizedbylargepurchasesofgroceries(bigfamilies,sincetheirchildrenstillliveathome)andbyrelativelyseenstablebrandrelationships.Earlierstudiesusuallyshowthatyoungerconsumersaremuchlessbrandloyalthanmorematureconsumers.Consequently,thesampleofrespondentsconsistsoftheagegroupsthataremostinterestedinbothstoresandbrandsuppliers(manufacturerorretailercontrolled).Atotalof1,000usableanswerswerereturnedintimetobeincluded(37percentresponserate).Thevariablesweremeasuredbydifferent5-gradedscalessuchastheLikertscale.
Thelatentvariable“StoreasaBrand”includedthemanifestvariables“lowprices,”“valueformoney,”“trust,”“aneatstore,”“apleasuretoshopin,”“anunusualstore,”“acompetentstore,”“customeroriented,”“environmentallyconcerned,”“assortment,”“understandscustomerneeds,”“customerrelationships.”
Thelatentvariable“StoreBrands”includedthefollowingproductcategories:gourmetfood,lunchfood,detergent,toothpaste,skinproducts,deodorant,haircareproducts,vitamins,microwaveoven,andvacuumcleaner.
Thelatentvariable“ManufacturerBrands”includedthemanifestvariables“manufacturerbrandsmakingiteasiertoselectbrand,”“reduceriskofmakingwrongchoice,”and“savestime,”“trustinmanufacturerbrands,”“servesasaguarantee,”“makesitfuntoshop,”“sayssomethingaboutthebuyer,”“valueformoney,”and“goodpackaging.”
Overallsatisfactionwithmainstore
Customersmayusedifferentexpectationreferentswhentheyevaluatehowsatisfiedtheyare,suchasideal,predicted,should,will,desired,orlikely.Researchinservicesmarketing(Parasuramanetal.,1991)hasoftenchosencompaniesprovidingexcellentserviceasareference,andthatchoicewasmadeinthepresentstudyaswell.
Brandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
549
IJRDM35,7
Finally,“StoreLoyalty”wasmeasuredbya4-gradedscalebasedonhowmuchtherespondentpurchasedinthemainstore(upto25percent,26-50,51-75,and76-100percent).Groceriesarelowinvolvementproductsanditisdifficultforconsumerstoknowexactlyhowmuchtheyspendindifferentstores,whichexplainsthechoiceofthescale.
Structuralequationmodeling
Thetheoreticalmodelwasspecifiedasastructuralequationmodel,andparametersforthemodelwereestimatedwithmaximum-likelihood(ML)methodsthroughthe
¨reskogandSo¨rbom,1999)undertheSTREAMS3.0useoftheLisrel8.30program(Jo
(GustafssonandStahl,2006)modelingenvironment.Thex2goodness-of-fittestguidedevaluationofmodelfit,alongwithestablishedfitindicessuchasRMR,GFI,AGFI,NFI,NNFI,CFI,andIFI(Byrne,2001;HuandBentler,1995).Mostemphasiswashoweverputontherootmeansquareerrorofapproximation(RMSEA)index(BrowneandCudek,1993),whichonanabsolutescalemeasurestheamountofdeviationbetweenmodelanddatatakingsamplesizeandmodelcomplexityintoaccount.Foramodeltoberegardedaswell-fitting,theruleshavebeenfollowedthattheRMSEApointestimateshouldbelowerthan0.05andtheupperlimitofthe90percentconfidenceintervaloftheestimateshouldbelowerthan0.07.Modificationindices¨rbom,1989),computedbytheLisrelprogram,wereprimarilyusedfordiagnosisof(So
sourcesofmodelmisspecification(Figure2).
Results
Thetestoftheproposedmodelwasbasedonasimplepathmodelthatrelatedthelatentvariablestothedependentmanifestvariable“StoreLoyalty”viaanothermanifestvariable“Satisfaction”withmainstore.Theproposedmodelwasfittedagainstthedataandthefollowingresultsweregenerated:(x2¼1064.1,N¼1,000,df¼473,p,0.00,RMSEA¼0.036;0.033-0.039,thetwonumbersindicatingthelowerandupperlimits,respectively,ofthe90percentconfidenceintervalofRMSEA),RMR¼0.050,GFI¼0.94,AGFI¼0.93,NFI¼0.94,NNFI¼0.96,CFI¼0.97,IFI¼0.97.Thisshowsthatthemodelfitsthedatawell.
Thestandardizedfactorloadingswerequitehighandallt-valuesfortheindicatorsweresignificant(t.1.96).Thehighestloadingfor“CorporateImage”wasthe“StoreasaBrand.”Thehighestloadingforthe“StoreasaBrand”wasthequalityoftherelationsthatthestorehadtoitscustomers.Thesecondmostimportantdimensionwasthatitwasaneatstorethatitwasapleasuretoshopin.Thethirdmostimportantdimensionwasthatthestoreunderstooditscustomersandofferedagoodassortment.Finally,thefourthdimensionofthe“StoreasaBrand”wasthepricedimension,i.e.thatthestorehadlowpricesandofferedvalueformoney.Itwasmuchlessimportantthatthestoreoffered“StoreBrands”thanthatitwasgoodatbeingacompetentretailer.Theleastimportantforthe“CorporateImage”wasthe“ManufacturerBrands”whichindicatesthatthesebrandsarefoundinmoststoresanddonotdifferentiateonestorefromanother.Manufacturerbrandsareveryimportanttomostconsumers,althoughsomecustomersegmentsareveryfavorabletomorestorebrands.
Thereisastrongerrelationship(standardizedestimate)between“CorporateImage”and“Satisfaction”withmainstore(0.67,t¼3.39)thanthereisbetween“Satisfaction”and“StoreLoyalty”(0.20,t¼6.41).Itislikelythattheway“StoreLoyalty”wasmeasuredhad
550
Store loyalty0.20, t=6.41Satisfaction0.67, t=3,39Corporate imageBrandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
551
0.18, t= 2.760.90, t=2.97Store as aBrand0.24, t=3.39Mfr BrandsStore Brands0.97Relations0.85Offer0.49Price0.92NiceNotes: All standardized path coefficients are significant (t-values > 1.96, p < 0.05).
All standardized coefficients in the measurement models are significant (t-values > 1.96, p < 0.05). Lowest t-value is 2.76 and highest t-value is 50.94. χ2 = 1064.1 (N = 1000, df = 473, p < 0.000) RMSEA .036
Figure2.
Theroleofstoreimageforsatisfactionandloyalty
animpactonthestrengthoftherelationshipbetween“Satisfaction”withmainstoreand“StoreLoyalty.”
Conclusionsanddiscussion
Thisstudyshowedthatthe“StoreasaBrand,”i.e.howretailersperformtheirjob,ismoreimportantthanthatthestoreoffersstorebrands.Retailersareexpectedtobegoodatretailing,therebycreatingapleasantandattractivestoreenvironmentaswellasanefficientoutletforconsumers.Consumersdonotseemtohaveanyexpectationsthatretailerslaunchstorebrands.Inotherwords,thisindicatesthatstorebrandswhichoffersomethingnotavailablebeforewillincreasestoreloyaltybutnotnecessarilyotherwise.Oneexampleisenvironmentallyfriendlygroceries.Anotherexampleislowerprices.Customerswhoprefertraditionalmanufacturerbrandsaremoreknowledgeable,moreawareinmanyrespectsandsomeofthemhavenotenoughtimetodotheirshopping.Therefore,traditionalbrandsprovidevaluetothemeveniftheycostmore.
Traditionalmanufacturerbrandsstillplayanimportantroleforretailersinmanyways.Traditionalmanufacturerbrandsofferqualityandvarietytocustomers.Manufacturersalsoinvestheavilytopromotetheirproductsinthestores
IJRDM35,7
552
(shelfrental,useofspecialdisplays,promotionalleaflets,etcandotherformsoffinancialsupporttotheretailchains).However,smallmanufacturersmaysellasmuchas50percentoftheirproductiontooneretailchainandarethereforenotinapositiontocriticizetheirimportantcustomer.Since,theconcentrationintheretailsectorismuchhigherinSwedenthaninothercountries,smallSwedishmanufacturersareworseoffthantheircolleaguesabroad.Itisestimatedthatthethreeleadinggrocerychainshaveamarketshareof90percentinSweden.Basedonmarketpower,retailersareinapositiontodominatethemarketandkeeponlaunchingmorestorebrands.However,ifcustomersatisfactiondecreaseasthevarietyofbrandsisreduced,theymayleavethemarketopentoforeignretailerswhooffermorevarietyandmakeshoppingtripsmoreexciting.Alternatively,themostprofitablecustomersmaystarttoshoparoundmore,sincesomecustomersegmentsaremuchlessinterestedinstorebrandsthanothercustomersegments.
Thereviewofpriorstudiesaswellasmarketstatisticsforthispaperhasshownthatstorebrandshaveatremendousgrowthrateworldwideandthatthisdevelopmentislikelytocontinueinthefuture.Thestudiesreviewed,indicatethatretailersmustconsidertheimpactonprofitabilityiftheyincreasetheshareofstorebrands.Whataretheconsequencesforretailersofthisgrowthofstorebrands?Isitonlyadvantageousforthem?Doesitincreasestoreloyalty?Thereareanumberoflikelyimplicationsofanincreasedshareofstorebrands(SudhirandTalukdar,2004).Storebrandsaremoreprofitablethannationalbrands(higherprofitmargins),butunitprofitsarenotnecessarilyhigher.Theconsequencemaybelowertotalprofitsoverall,iftheincreaseinstorebrandshareisnotaccompaniedbygreaterspendingatthestore.Revenuedeclines,sincepricesofstorebrandsarelower(SudhirandTalukdar,2004).
ThereisaneedformuchmoreresearchusingtheapproachsuggestedbyGrewaletal.(2004)thatincludesthe“StoreasaBrand,”“StoreBrands,”and“ManufacturerBrands”inthe“CorporateImage”ofthestore.Theysuggestthatfuturestudiesshouldexaminehowstoreimageevolvesaswellasthedevelopmentofstorebrandsandbrandequity,whichtheyargueisanareanotamenabletosimplecross-sectionaldatabases.However,mostresearchersdonothavefullaccesstocorporateinformation,whichmeansthatitismorereasonabletosuggestthatfuturestudiesuseanumberofdifferentmethodologiestoshedadditionallightontheroleofstorebrandsfortheimageoftheretailer.Experimentalstudiescouldforexampleusespecificstorebrandsandmanufacturerbrands,insteadoflookingatstorebrandsingeneral.In-depthinterviewscouldilluminatehowthevariousbrandsareperceivedbyconsumers.Cross-sectional,cross-culturalstudiescouldcomparethedevelopmentofstorebrandsagainstthemarketsharesofretailersandmanufacturers.Ifresearchershadaccesstothecustomerdatabasesofleadingretailers,moreresearchcouldbedoneonbehavioraldata.Aninterestingapproachwouldbetocompareprofitableversuslessprofitablecustomersagainsttheiruseofstorebrands.
Inanacademicperspective,itisproblematicthatmoststudiesofstorebrandsusetheconcept“storebrand”asifthesebrandswereidenticalbetweencountriesandretailers.IntheUK,Tesco’spremiumbrandis“Finest”butthegrocerychainalsohas“Value”linesandlinestargetedtospecificpreferencessuchas“HealthyLiving.”ElevenEuropeanretailershaveajointbrand,“Euroshopper,”whichisabudgetbrand,afightingbrand.Consumerswhomainlypurchase“Euroshopper”willconsequentlyhaveadifferentexperienceofstorebrandsthanconsumerswhomainlybuypremium
storebrands.Somestorebrandsareimitationsofleadingbrands,andothers(premiumstorebrands)areformulatedtobeasgoodasorbetterthantheleadingbrands.Thesemajordifferencesbetweendifferentcategoriesofstorebrandshavenotbeenacknowledgedinpriorresearchbutshouldbeacknowledgedinthefuture.
Finally,futurestudieslookingattherelativeroleofstorebrandsforthecorporateimageofthestoremaywanttodevelopandtestnewmethodstoisolatetheimpactofstorebrandsandmanufacturerbrandsonthecorporateimage.Itismostlikelyquitedifficultforconsumerstoisolatetheperceptionofthestoreasabrandversustheimpactthatmanufacturerbrandsandstorebrandshaveontheoverallimpression.
References
Aaker,D.(1996),BuildingStrongBrands,TheFreePress,NewYork,NY.
Ailawadi,K.L.andHarlam,B.(2004),“Anempiricalanalysisofthedeterminantsofretail
margins:theroleofstore-brandshare”,JournalofMarketing,Vol.68,pp.147-65.
Ailawadi,K.L.andKeller,K.L.(2004),“Understandingretailbranding:conceptualinsightsand
researchpriorities”,JournalofRetailing,Vol.80,pp.331-42.
Ailawadi,K.L.,Neslin,S.A.andGedenk,K.(2001),“Pursuingthevalue-conscious
consumer:storebrandsversusnationalbrandpromotions”,JournalofMarketing,Vol.65,pp.71-89.
Barnett,M.L.,Jermier,J.M.andLafferty,B.A.(2006),“Corporatereputation:thedefinitional
landscape”,CorporateReputationReview,Vol.9No.1,pp.26-38.
Bloemer,J.anddeRuyter,K.(1998),“Ontherelationshipbetweenstoreimage,storesatisfaction
andstoreloyalty”,EuropeanJournalofMarketing,Vol.32Nos5/6,pp.499-513.
Browne,M.W.andCudek,R.(1993),“Alternativewaysofassessingmodelfit”,inKenneth,A.
etal.(Eds),TestingStructuralEquationModels,Sage,NewburyPark,CA,pp.136-62.Byrne,B.M.(2001),StructuralEquationModelingWithAMOS,LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,
Mahwah,NJ.
Dacin,P.A.andBrown,T.J.(1997),“Thecompanyandtheproduct:corporateassociationsand
consumerproductresponses”,JournalofMarketing,Vol.61No.1,pp.68-84.
Dimitriadis,S.andLangeard,E.(1990),LimitsofBrandExtensions:AnEmpiricalStudyof
ConsumerReactionstoRetailer’sCorporateBrandExtensions,Institutd’AdministrationdesEntreprisesofAix-en-Provence,Puyricard.
Dunn,M.G.,Patrick,E.andSkelly,G.U.(1986),“Theinfluenceofperceivedriskonbrand
preferencesforsupermarketproducts”,JournalofRetailing,Vol.62No.2,pp.204-16.Erdem,T.,Zhao,Y.andValenzuela,A.(2004),“Performanceofstorebrands:across-country
analysisofconsumerstore-brandpreferences,perceptions,andrisk”,JournalofMarketingResearch,Vol.XLI,pp.86-100.
Fombrun,C.J.(1996),Reputation:RealizingValuefromtheCorporateImage,HarvardBusiness
SchoolPress,Boston,MA.
˜o,P.M.andRibeiro,R.(1995),“Howprofitableareown´met,F.,Gonza´lez-Andio´n,S.,LeitaGle
brandproducts?”,TheMcKinseyQuarterly,No.3,pp.173-5.
Grewal,D.,Levy,M.andLehmann,D.R.(2004),“Retailbrandingandcustomerloyalty:an
overview.Editorial”,JournalofRetailing,Vol.80,pp.ix-xii.
Gustafsson,J.E.andStahl,P.A.(2006),STREAMSUser’sGuide,MultivariateWare,Molndal.
Brandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
553
IJRDM35,7
554
Hartman,K.B.andSpiro,R.L.(2005),“Recapturingstoreimageincustomer-basedstore
equity:aconstructconceptualization”,JournalofBusinessResearch,Vol.58No.8,pp.1112-20.
Hu,L.T.andBentler,P.M.(1995),inHoyle,R.H.(Ed.),EvaluatingModelFit,inStructural
EquationModeling,Sage,ThousandOaks,CA,pp.76-99.
Johnson,M.D.(1998),CustomerOrientationandMarketAction,Prentice-Hall,UpperSaddle
River,NJ.
¨reskog,K.G.andSo¨rbom,D.(1999),Lisrel8:StructuralEquationModelingwithSIMPLISJo
CommandLanguage,ScientificSoftware,Mooresville,IL,availableat:www.ssicentral.comMartineau,P.(1958),“Thepersonalityoftheretailstore”,HarvardBusinessReview,Vol.36,
pp.47-55.
Mayer,M.L.(1989),“1949-1989:retailreflections”,JournalofRetailing,Vol.65,pp.396-401.Nielsen,A.C.(2005),“Thepowerofprivatelabel”,availableat:www.acnielsen.se(accessed
4December2005).
Oliver,R.L.(1997),Satisfaction:ABehavioralPerspectiveontheConsumer,McGraw-Hill,
NewYork,NY.
Oliver,R.L.(2006),“Customersatisfactionresearch”,inGrover,R.andVriens,M.(Eds),
TheHandbookofMarketingResearch,Chapter27,Sage,ThousandOaks,CA.
Osman,M.Z.(1993),“Aconceptualmodelofretailimageinfluencesonloyaltypatronage
behavior”,InternationalReviewofRetailing,Distribution&ConsumerResearch,Vol.3No.2,pp.133-48.
Parasuraman,A.,Berry,L.L.andZeithaml,V.A.(1991),“Refinementandreassessmentofthe
SERVQUALscale”,JournalofRetailing,Vol.67No.4,pp.420-50.
Quelch,J.A.andHarding,D.(1996),“Brandsversusprivatelabels:fightingtowin”,Harvard
BusinessReview,January-February,pp.99-109.
Rao,A.R.,Qu,L.andRuekert,R.(1999),“Signalingunobservableproductqualitythrougha
brandally”,JournalofMarketingResearch,Vol.36,pp.258-68.
Richardson,P.S.,Dick,A.S.andJain,A.K.(1994),“Extrinsicandintrinsiccueeffectson
perceptionsofstorebrandquality”,JournalofMarketing,Vol.58,pp.28-36.
Richardson,P.,Jain,A.K.andDick,A.(1996),“Theinfluenceofstoreaestheticson
evaluationofprivatelabelbrands”,JournalofProduct&BrandManagement,Vol.5No.1,pp.19-28.
Roberts,P.W.andDowling,G.R.(2002),“Corporatereputationandsustainedsuperiorfinancial
performance”,StrategicManagementJournal,Vol.23,pp.1077-93.¨rbom,D.(1989),“Modelmodification”,Psykometrika,Vol.54,pp.371-84.So
Sudhir,K.andTalukdar,D.(2004),“Doesstorebrandpatronageimprovestorepatronage?”,
ReviewofIndustrialOrganization,Vol.24,pp.143-60.
Sullivan,M.W.(1990),“Measuringimagespilloversinumbrella-brandedproducts”,
JournalofBusiness,Vol.63,pp.309-29.
Sullivan,M.W.(1998),“Howbrandnamesaffectthedemandfortwinautomobiles”,
JournalofMarketingResearch,Vol.35,pp.154-65.
Szymanski,D.M.andHenard,D.H.(2001),“Customersatisfaction:ameta-analysisoftheempirical
evidence”,JournaloftheAcademyofMarketingScience,Vol.29No.1,pp.16-35.
WolffOlins(n.d.),Tesco.Shelflively.Casestudy,WolffOlins,London,availableat:
www.wolff-olins.com/tesco.htm(accessed22January2007).
Furtherreading
Dowling,G.R.(2004),“Corporatereputations:shouldyoucompeteonyours?”,California
ManagementReview,Vol.46No.3,pp.19-36.Abouttheauthor
RitaMartensonisaProfessorinMarketingattheSchoolofBusiness,EconomicsandLaw,¨teborgUniversity,Sweden.ShewroteherdoctoraldissertationonIKEAandhaslongGo
experiencefromresearchinvariousareassuchasmarketingcommunications,branding,retailing,cross-culturalissues,andconsumerbehavior.Shehaswrittennumerousarticlesandbooksintheseareasandshehasinternationalworkexperiencefromseveralcountries.RitaMartensoncanbecontactedat:Rita.Martenson@handels.gu.se
Brandimage,satisfactionandstoreloyalty
555
Topurchasereprintsofthisarticlepleasee-mail:reprints@emeraldinsight.comOrvisitourwebsiteforfurtherdetails:www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
因篇幅问题不能全部显示，请点此查看更多更全内容