It includes the tools and techniques used in Surveying and Mapping, Remote Sensing (RS), Cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS, i.e.,GPS, Glonass, Galileo, Compass),Photogrammetry, Geography, Geosciences, Computer Sciences, Information Science and various spatial observation technologies, land development and environmental sciences, etc.
测绘学是一种相对较新的科学术语由波洛克和赖特在1969年提出，目的是将大地测量学与地理信息学结合起来。
它包括的工具和技术应用于测绘、遥感(RS)、地图学、地理信息系统(GIS)、全球导航卫星系统(GNSS,即。、GPS、Glonass、伽利略、北斗),摄影测量、地理学、地球科学、电脑科学、信息科学和各种空间观测技术、土地开发、环境科学等。
Surveying may be defined as the technology and science of the study of earth’s shape and size, as well as making measurements of the relative positions of natural and man-made features on, above or below the earth’s surface, and representing these information in analog forms as contoured maps or sections, paper plan or chart, or as figures in report tables, or in digital form as a three dimensional mathematical model stored in the computer.
测量的技术和科学可以定义为研究地球的形状和大小,以及测量位于地球外表上或者低于或者高于地球外表的自然的或人造的物体的相对位置,并将这些信息以模拟形式的波状外形的地图、剖面图、论文计划、图表、数据报告表中呈现或以数字形式存储在电脑三维数学模型中。
Surveys are the technologies of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, measuring angles between lines or the direction of lines, and determining the elevations of the points.
After the actual measurements of surveys, mathematical calculations are made to determine the distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes from surveying data.
Then much surveying information is portrayed graphically in forms of the construction maps, profiles, cross-sections and diagrams.
测绘学是测量物体之间的水平和垂直距离,测量直线之间的角度或直线的方向,测量点位的高度的技术。
在实际测量后,需要根据测量数据进行数学计算来确定距离,角度,方向,位置,海拔,地区和体积。
然后测量信息就以地图、剖面图、横断面图和图表等图形形式描绘出来。 The equipments available and methods applicable for measurements and calculations have changed tremendously in the past decade.
Traditional equipments for measurements: Optical (electronic) Theodolite, Tapes, Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM), levels, etc.
Modern equipments: Aerial photogrammetry, satellite observation, Remote Sensing (RS), inertial surveying, and laser ranging techniques, etc.
At the same time, the relatively easy access to computers of all size facilitates the
rigorous processing and storage of large volumes of data.
可用的设备和适用于测量和计算的方法在过去十年发生了巨大变化。
传统的测量设备:光学〔电子〕经纬仪、磁带、电子测距(EDM)、水准尺等。 现代设备:航空摄影测量、卫星观测、遥感(RS)、惯性测量,激光测距技术,等等。
同时,电脑的相对广泛应用促进了严格处理和存储大量数据的过程。
With the development of these modern data acquisition and processing systems, the duties of the surveyors have expanded beyond the traditional tasks of the field work of taking measurements and the office work of computing and drawing.
Surveying is required not only for conventional construction engineering projects, mapping, and property surveys, but is also used increasingly by other physical sciences, such as geology, geophysics, biology, agriculture, forestry, hydrology, oceanography and geography, etc.
随着现代数据采集和处理系统的发展,测量员的职责已经大大超出了传统的野外测量工作和内业计算和绘图工作。 测量不仅适用于传统的建筑工程项目、地图学和土地权属调查,也越来越多的适用于其他物理科学,如地质、地球物理、生态学、农学、林业学、水文、海洋、地理等。
The essential work of surveying is to determine accurately the position of the features on the surface of the Earth (horizontal surveying), and the elevations of the features (vertical surveying), or a combination of both.
Although different surveys are for different purposes, the basic operations include: measurements (fieldwork), computations and mapping (office work).
From another point, the work of surveying is either to determine the locations (three-dimensional coordinates) of ground features and drawing all kinds of maps, or to mark out the designed buildings or structures in maps at their proposed positions.
测量的基本工作是确定地球上物体的准确位置(水平测量)和高度(垂直测量),或两者的结合。
虽然不同的调查是为了不同的目的,基本操作包括:测量(野外),计算和绘图(内业)。
从另一个角度,测量的工作是确定地球表现上物体的位置(三维坐标)和绘制各种地图,或在地图上的建筑物、构筑物中标定他们的位置。 Surveying operations include:
(1) design of surveying procedures and selection of equipments; (2) acquisition and storage of data in the fields;
(3) reduction or analysis of data in the office or in the filed;
(4)preparation of maps or other displays in the graphical or numerical forms needed for the purpose of survey;
(5) layout of monuments and boundaries in the fields, as well as providing control surveying for construction. 测量操作包括:
(1)测量过程的设计和测量仪器的选择; (2)野外数据的采集和存储;
(3)在办公室或野外分析和处理数据;
(4)准备测量所需的地图或其他以图形或数字形式的呈现的图形; (5)在野外埋设标石和边界,进行施工控制测量。
Performance of these tasks requires a familiarity with the uses of surveying equipments and techniques, knowledge of fundamentals of the surveying process, and knowledge of various means by which data can be prepared for presentation. Definitions of control surveying and detail surveying:
(1) Control surveying is referred to the measurements of control points, which are well spaced in the form of network and play controlling roles in survey area.
(2) Detail surveying is referred to the work of measuring the terrain features around each control point.
这些任务的完成需要熟练使用测量设备和技术,测量过程的基础知识和在地图上展绘数据的各种知识。 控制测量和碎部测量的定义:
(1)控制测量的测量控制点,以网络的形式分布在测区并在测区起控制作用。 (2)碎部测量是测量每个控制点周围的地形特征。
The work of surveying should follow some basic procedures or rules:
(1) Control surveying should be firstly carried out, and then detail surveying. (2) The work of surveying should be conduced from the whole to the parts. (3) High-precision surveying controls the low-precision surveying. (4) Each step of surveying work has a check.
These basic procedures or rules can help to divide surveying area into different map units, reduce the error accumulation, ensure the precision of mapping, and speed up the mapping process.
测量工作应该遵循基本的程序和规则:
(1)控制测量应首先进行,然后进行碎部测量。 (2)测量的工作应该是从整体到局部。 (3)高精度等级测量控制低精度等级测量。 (4)步步要检核。
这些基本的程序或规则可以把测量区域划分为不同的地图单元,减少误差积累,保证了地图的精度,加快制图过程。
Surveys have many different branches, such as geodetic surveying, plane surveying, engineering surveying, topographic surveying, cadastral surveying, mine surveying, etc.
1. Geodetic surveying
Geodetic surveying is referred to the measurement and representation of the Earth’s shape and size, gravity field and geodynamic phenomena (such as polar motion, Earth tides and crustal motion), and establishment of control networks of large areas for other surveys.
调查有很多不同的分支,如大地测量、平面测量,工程测量,地形测量、地籍测量、矿山测量学等。 1、大地测量学
大地测量是测量和表征地球的形状和大小,重力场和地球动力学的现象(如极移、地球潮汐和地壳运动),建立用于其他大面积测量的控制网络的学科。
In geodetic surveying, large areas of the Earth’s surface are involved and the true
shape of the Earth must be taken into account, and the stations are normally long distances apart, and more precise instruments and surveying methods are required for this type of surveying.
In geodetic surveying, the shape of the Earth is thought of as a spheroid, although it is not really a spheroid in a technical sense.
在大地测量学中，由于地球外表的大部分地区都有涉及，所以地球的真实形状必须考虑进去,由于站点之间的分隔距离较远,所以需要更精密的仪器和测量方法。
在大地测量学中，地球的形状被认为是一个球体,虽然在理论意义上并不是一个球体。
Therefore, distances measured on or near the surface of the Earth are not along straight lines or planes, but on a curved surface.
Widely spaced and permanent monuments are used as the basis for computing lengths and distances between relative positions. allowances are made for the earth’s minor and major diameters from which a reference spheroid is developed.
These basic points with permanent monuments are called geodetic control points, which support the production of consistent and compatible reference coordinates for other surveying and mapping projects.
因此,在地球外表或者地球附近所测的距离并不是沿直线或平面的,而是在一个曲面上。
广泛放置的永久标石可以作为计算长度和相对点位之间距离的基础。参考椭球面是根据地球的大小半径的容许差来建立的。
这些带有永久标石的基本点被称为大地控制点,为其他的测量工作提供固定坐标和相对坐标。 2. Plane surveying
The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered a plane, or in which the curvature of the earth can be disregarded without significant error, generally is called plane survey .
The term is used to designate survey work in which the distances or areas involved are of limited extent. 2、平面测量
在这种测量中地球平均外表被认为是一个平面,或在没有较大误差的情况下地球曲率可以被忽略,这种测量通常被称为平面测量。
这种测量都用于指定的距离和面积在有限范围内的测量工作。
With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level line is considered mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line is considered to be plane angles.
In plane surveying, formulas of plane trigonometry , algebra , and analytical geometry are used to make computations.
For small areas, precise results may be obtained with plane surveying methods, but the accuracy and precision of such results will decrease as the area surveyed increases in size.
对与水平距离和方向,水平线在数学上被认为是直的,铅垂线的方向被认为是平面角。
在平面测量中，平面三角公式、代数、解析几何是用来计算的。
对小区域,平面测量方法可以获得精确的结果,但结果的准确度和精度将随着测区的面积增大而降低。
There are close cooperation between geodetic survey and plane survey.
The geodetic survey adopts the parameters determined by measurements of the earth, and its own results are available to those who measure the earth.
The plane surveys are generally connected to the control points of the geodetic surveys.
大地测量和平面测量之间有密切的联系。
大地测量采用参数取决于所测量的地球平面,并且测量结果可被其他测量地球的人使用。
平面测量通常与大地测量的控制点有关。 3. Topographic surveying
Topographic surveys are made to determine the configuration ( relief ) of the surface of the earth, locate the natural and artificial features thereon, and produce maps, plans or sections to suitable scales.
Many natural and artificial features such as relief,hydrography, vegetation , road ,trails , buildings, canals and boundary lines have to be represented by conventional symbols in a topographic map. 3 .地形测量
地形测量是用来确定地球外表形状,确定自然和人工物体的位置,并生成地图,选定平面图和区域图的合适的比例尺。
许多天然和人工物体,比方地貌、水文、植被、道路、小径、建筑物、运河和边界线必须由传统的地形图符号在地形图中表示。
Topographic maps have height information either as spot heights or as contours, and their scales are different ranges.
Topographic maps have a multitude of uses, such as navigation , recreation , geographical and geological study, military, exploration , etc.
地形图上有点位高度表示的高程信息和以等高线表示的高程信息,他们的比例尺范围不同。
地形图有多种用途,如导航、娱乐、地理和地质研究、军事、勘探等。 4. Engineering surveying
Engineering surveys are referred to all the surveys required in design, construction and management stages of engineering constructions.
For example, in the stage of survey and design, large-scale topographical maps or plans are required as a basis for design, then the proposed position of any new item of the construction must be marked out on the ground both in plane and height, these operations generally termed setting 4、工程测量
工程测量是指建筑设计、工程建设和工程建设的管理阶段的所有测量工作。 例如,在勘察设计阶段,大比例尺的地形图或设计作为设计的基础,并且提出任何新的建设项目的点位必须在平面上放样出平面位置和高度,这些操作通常称为放样。
setting out , and finally, as-built surveys and deformation monitoring are often
required.
The design and construction of new routes, e.g. roads, and railways, the calculations of the areas and volumes of land are also the aspects of engineering surveys.
放样,最后竣工调查和变形监测通常是必需的。
新路线的设计和施工,如公路,铁路,计算区域大小和土方量也属于工程测量。 5. Cadastral surveying
Cadastral surveys are referred to the work of making measurements and plotting the measurements to produce plans of property boundaries for legal purposes.
In many countries the registrations of ownership of lands are based on such plans. 5、地籍测量
地籍测量是指进行测量和绘制符合法律用途的合法边界。 在许多国家登记的土地的所有权是基于这样的平面图。 6. Mine Surveying
Mine surveying is concerned with measurements of surface and underground mines, obtaining data in digital form and making graphical representation for prospecting mineral deposits, constructing mines and exploiting minerals.
A few centuries ago, mine surveying is extensively developed for the determination of the boundaries of the mining claims.
The early period of mine surveying may be considered as the art of running underground traverses. 6、矿山测量学
矿山测量学是测量外表和地下矿山、以数字形式获取数据,使图形标绘勘探矿藏,矿山建设和开采矿产。
几个世纪前,矿山测量学广泛发展是为了采矿勘界的目的。 矿山测量学的早期可能被视为布设地下导线。
However, as it developed, mine surveying included, apart from techniques of mine surveying, the mine surveying instrumentation, the geometry of mineral resources, study of tectonics, etc. All these aspects of mine surveying are made for the precision of geological exploration, as well as the safety and efficiency in working a mine. As the progress has been made in the methods of mine surveying, the mine surveyors are using the gyro-theodolite, high-precision theodolites and optical range finders to solve of the problems of orientation and construction of reference networks.
然而,随着它的发展,矿山测量学,除了矿山测量技术、矿山测量仪器,矿产资源的几何构造和技术研究等。矿山测量的所有这些方面构成地质勘探精度,以及矿井工作的安全性和效率。
矿山测量学方法的进步,矿山测量员使用陀螺经纬仪、高精度经纬仪和光学测距仪来解决定向和参照网络的建设等问题。
Self-adjusting levels and lasers have recently become very popular to give lines and grades and check on the directions of mines, and provide control for such operations as mine shaft equipment, laying railway tracks, installing conveyors, putting through pipelines and others.
Moreover, new techniques and instruments are made for plotting mine graphics and preparing mine plans and longitudinal and transverse sections.
自动安平水准仪和激光水准仪最近变得非常流行在施工方样和坡度以及检核矿井方向等方面,并为矿井设备操作提供控制,铺设铁轨,安装输送机,放样管道和其他事物。
此外,新技术和仪器是用来铺设井筒和绘制矿井平面图和纵和横向断面图的。
The earliest surveys were for the purpose of establishing the boundaries of land, and such surveys are still important work of many surveyors.
Every construction project of any magnitude is based to some degree upon measurements taken during the progress of a survey and is constructed about lines and points established by the surveyors.
Aside from land surveys, practically all surveys of private and public natures are of assistance in the conception, design, and execution of engineering works.
最早的调查是为了建立土地的边界,这样的测量工作仍是测量员的重要工作。
任何规模的建设项目都是在某种程度上基于测量以及测量员所放样的点线。 除了土地调查,几乎所有的私有和公共性质调查是概念、设计、工程和执行工作的辅助设备。
1.4 Developments of Surveying 1. Surveying techniques
Historically, distances were measured by different means, for instance tapes made of steel or invar were pulled taut to reduce sagging and slack to measure horizontal distances.
Additionally, attempting to measure up a slope, the surveyors might have to use increments less than the total length of the tape.
Horizontal angles were measured using a compass, which would provide a magnetic bearing. This type of instrument was later improved, with more carefully scribed discs providing better angular resolution, as well as through mounting telescopes with reticles for more-precise sighting atop the disc.
从历史上看,距离测量的方式有很多,例如使用拉紧的钢尺或铟瓦尺减少下垂和松弛来测量水平距离。
此外,为了测量斜坡,测量员可能使用增量法而不是总长度的钢尺。
使用带有磁轴承的罗盘测量水平角度。这种类型的仪器后来有所改善,更仔细地刻划度盘从而提供更好的角分辨率,以及通过望远镜的十字刻划丝来更精确的瞄准度盘的顶部。
High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used for this work, and angles between objects were measured repeatedly for increased accuracy.
Historically, the simplest method for measuring heights was using air pressure as an indication of height with an altimeter (basically a barometer).
But surveying requires greater precision. A variety of means, such as precise leveling (also known as differential leveling), have been developed to do this. With precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken using a level instrument and a leveling rod.
高精度经纬仪被用于这项工作,通过增加物体之间角度测量次数来增加准确性。
测量高度的历史上,最简单的方法是使用带有空气压力的高度计指示高度(本质上是一个气压计)。
但测量需要更高的精度。各种手段,如精密水准测量(也称为微分水准),已经开发出来。精密水准测量,两点之间的测量工作通过一系列仪器和水准尺进行。 Triangulation is another method of horizontal location was widely used in the past years. As long as they are visible from one of the original objects, with the triangulation method, distances and directions between objects at great distance from one another can be determined.
A more modern instrument is a Total Station, which is a theodolite with an Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM).
Since its introduction, total station has made the technological shift from being optical-mechanical device to being fully electronic。
三角测量是过去被广泛应用的一种测量水平位置的方法。只要他们从最初的对象是可见的,三角测量方法,两个较远物体之间的距离和方向可以确定。 更现代的仪器是全站仪,它是一个经纬仪与电子测距仪(EDM)的组合。 全站仪引入以来,全站仪技术已经从光学机械设备完全转变为电子的。 Modern Total Stations no longer require a reflector or prism (used to return the light pulses) to measure distances, they are fully robotic and can even e-mail point data to the office computer.
With the advancement of satellite positioning technology, the speed and precision of surveying are greatly increased by using Global Positioning System (GPS).
Because GPS systems do not work well in areas with dense tree cover or constructions, Total Stations are still used widely along with other types of surveying instruments.
Now robotic-guided Total Stations allow surveyors to gather precise measurements without extra surveyors to look through and turn the telescope or record data.
现代全站仪不再需要一个反射器或棱镜(用于返回光脉冲)来测量距离,他们完全自动化甚至可以以电子邮件的方式发送数据点到办公室的电脑。
随着卫星定位技术的发展,测量的速度和精度大大增加通过使用全球定位系统(GPS)。
因为GPS系统在茂密的树木覆盖的地区或建筑密集区工作性能不好,全站仪仍与其他类型的测量仪器一同广泛使用。
现在智能全站仪允许测量员在没有额外的测量员进行检核、调整棱镜和记录数据的情况下，进行精确测量。
Chapter 2 Datums of Surveying 2.1 Geoid and reference ellipsoid 2.2 Map projection 2.3 Datums and coordinate system 2.1 Geoid and reference ellipsoid 大地水准面和参考椭球面
The Earth’s physical surface is a reality upon which the surveying observations are made and points are located.
However, due to its variable topographic surface and overall shape, it cannot be defined mathematically and so positions cannot be computed on its surface.
It is for this reason that in surveys of limited extent, the Earth is treated as flat and plane trigonometry used to define position.
地球的物理外表是一个测量观测地形和放样点位的真实外表。
然而,由于其变化的地形外表和整体形状,它不能按照数学方法定义,所以点位也不能在其外表计算。
正是因为这一原因,在调查范围有限的情况下,地球呗认为是平的,平面三角用来定义点的位置。
If the area under consideration is of limited extent, orthogonal projection of this area onto a plane surface may result in negligible distortion.
Plane surveying techniques could be used to capture field data and plane trigonometry used to compute position.
However, if the area extended to a large area beyond limitation and treated as a flat surface the effect of the earth’s curvature will produce unacceptable distortion.
如果考虑到测区的面积是有限的,这一地区的正交投影在平面上可能产生的变形是可以忽略不计的。
平面测量技术可以用来捕获野外数据和平面三角测量用于计算点的位置。 然而,如果测区面积扩大到超出一定限制的区域,被当作一个平面，由于地球曲率的影响将产生不可接受的变形。
Therefore, a mathematical model of the earth is needed to represent horizontal positions and elevations on maps.
As such, it is necessary to define a mathematical surface that approximates to the shape of the area under consideration and then fit and orientate it to the Earth’s surface.
Such a mathematical surface is referred in surveying as a ‘ reference ellipsoid ’.
因此,需要地球的一个数学模型来表示地图上点的水平位置和高度。
因此,必须定义一个接近考虑区域的数学平面,然后拟合并定位到地球外表。 这样的数学外表在测量上被称为参考椭球体。 (1) Geoid
Since the physical surface of the Earth can’t be used as a computational surface, a mean sea level surface is instinctively taken into consideration.
Mean sea level (MSL) is defined as the average level of the ocean surface for all stages of the tide after long periods of observations.
By extending the earth’s MSL through the landmass, an equipotential surface approximately at MSL would be formed . Such a surface is called the ‘geoid’ . (1)大地水准面
因为物理地球外表不能被用作计算面,平均海平面是本能地考虑。 平均海平面被定义为长时间观察所有阶段潮后的平均海平面。
将地球的平均海水面扩展到大陆上,接近于平均海水面的等势面大约会形成。
这样一个外表被称为“大地水准面”。
It could be imagined that a trench is dug across the countries linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
If the trench is filled with seawater, the surface of the water in the trench would represent the geoid.
它可以想象,在各个国家挖的连接大西洋和太平洋的槽。 如果槽充满海水,槽里水的外表代表大地水准面。
Thus by definition, the geoid is an equipotential surface of the Earth gravity field that most closely approximates the mean sea surface.
The geoid is only a theoretical surface, which is perpendicular at every point to the direction of gravity.
The shape of geoid can be actually measured which is based on gravity data collected worldwide.
因此根据定义,大地水准面是一个最接**均海水面的地球重力场的等势面。
大地水准面只是一个理论外表,它上边的每一个点垂直指向重力的方向。 大地水准面的形状可以由在全球范围内收集的重力数据来计算。
Although the gravity potential is everywhere the same and the surface is smoother than physical surface of the Earth, it still contains many irregularities which render it unsuitable mathematical location of planimetric position.
These irregularities are thought to be due to mass anomalies throughout the Earth. The geoid remains important to the surveyor , as it is the surface to which all terrestrial measurements are related.
虽然重力势处处都是一样的,重力势外表比物理地球外表光滑,它还包含了许多不规则的形状使它呈现不适合数学平面位置的点位。
这些不规则形状被认为是由于在整个地球质量异常引起的。
对于测量员来说大地水准面仍然是重要的,因为它是与所有陆地测量相关的外表。
As the direction of the gravity vector is everywhere normal to the geoid , it defines the direction of the surveyor’s plumb-bob line.
Thus any instrument which is horizontalized by means of a spirit bubble will be referenced to the local equipotential surface.
Elevations are related to the equipotential surface passing through MSL.
Such elevations or heights are called orthometric heights ( H ) and are the linear distances measured along the gravity vector from a point to the equipotential surface as a reference datum.
因为重力的方向向量在大地水准面上到处都是正常的,可以用它定义测量员的铅锤线的方向。
因此通过水准气泡整平的任何仪器将会引用到当地等位面。 高程与穿过平均海水面的等位面有关。
海拔或高度等被称为正常高(H),它是一个重力位上的点到等势面所测量直线距离来作为参考数据。 (2) Reference Ellipsoid
The ellipsoid is a mathematical surface which provides a convenient model of the Earth, and can best meet the needs of a particular geodetic datum system design. It is represented by an ellipse rotated about its minor axis and is defined by its semi-major axis and flattening.
Although the ellipsoid is a concept and not a physical reality, it represents a smooth surface for which formulas can be developed to compute ellipsoidal distance, azimuth and ellipsoidal coordinates. (2)参考椭球体
椭球是数学的外表给地球提供了一个方便的模型,并能最好的满足特定的大地基准系统的需求设计。
它是由椭圆旋转短轴和被定义为它的长半轴和扁率。
虽然椭球是一个概念,而不是现实的物理外表,它表示一个平滑的外表在上边可以用公式计算大地距离,方位角和大地坐标。
Due to the variable shape of the geoid, it is not possible to have a global ellipsoid of reference for use by all countries.
由于变量的形状大地水准面,不可能有一个全球所有国家使用参考椭球。
The best-fitting global geocentric ellipsoid is the Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80), which has the following dimensions: global geocentric ellipsoid semi-major axis a=is 6378137.0 m 全球地心椭球 semi-minor axis b=is 6356752.314 m flattening ɑ=1：
全球最正确拟合的地球椭球是全球地心大地 参考椭球系统1980(GRS80),参数如下: 长半轴 a 短
压扁ɑ=1：
WGS [world geodetic system] 84 ellipsoid:
a = 6 378 137m North Pole 北极 b = 6 356 752.3m
equatorial diameter = 12 756.3km
polar diameter = 12 713.5km Polar Axis equatorial circumference = 40 075.1km
b
surface area = 510 064 500km2
WGS[世界大地坐标系统]84椭球: a= 6378 137m
a
m
Equator
Equatorial Axis
面积= 510 064 500平方公里
ab63781376356752.3 fa63781371298.257 f
South Pole
The relationship of all three surfaces which are terrain, geoid and ellipsoid is illustrated in the figure below.
地球外表、大地水准面、参考椭球面三者之间的关系见以下图。
The orthometric height H is the height with reference to the MSL, whereas the geodetic height h is the height referenced to ellipsoid.
正高H是参考面到平均海水面的高度,而大地高度h参考面到参考椭球的高度。
Ground point A地面点A
Terrain地势
H h Geoid大地水准面
N=h-H B reference ellipsoid参考椭球面
The quantity N, the height of the geoid above the reference ellipsoid or the perpendicular distance between the geoid and the reference ellipsoid at a point, is usually called the geoidal height ( geoid undulation ).
数量N,大地水准面高于参考椭球体的高度或某点大地水准面和参考椭球体面之间的垂直距离,通常被称为大地水准面高度(大地水准面起伏)。
Once the geoid is determined, the difference between the surfaces of the ellipsoid and geoid anywhere in the country can be computed.
Surveyors used to working with spirit level have referenced orthometric heights (H) to the ‘average’ surface of the earth, as depicted by MSL.
The surface of MSL can be approximated by the geoid.
一旦大地水准面确定下来,在全国的任何地方都可以计算参考椭球面和大地水准面之间的距离。
测量员用水准仪测量正高(H)也就是点到地球平均外表的高度,如平均海水面。
平均海水面可以近似为大地水准面。
The height of the MSL above the geoid is called the sea surface topography (SST). It is a very difficult quantity to obtain from any measurements. Consequently, it is not yet known very accurately.
平均海水面的高度高于大地水准面的地方称为海面地形(SST)。这是一个非常难以通过任何测量获得的量。因此,它是还没有完全确定。
GPS heights are referenced to the ellipsoid, a mathematical model that does not physically exist.
This model, does not agree with Mean Sea Level.
That means the height of a point determined from GPS is not the same as its sea level elevation as determined by leveling .
GPS高是由参考椭球得到的,参考椭球是物理上不存在的数学模型。 这个模型,与平均海平面不拟合。
这意味着决定某点的GPS高与它的由水准尺测得的平均海水面高程不一样。 The summary of the relationships among height systems can be illustrated below:
(1) MSL elevation is roughly equivalent to orthometric height (H), the technical name for height above the geoid. The geoid is, for all intents and purposes, the same as MSL.
高度系统之间的关系可以总结如下:
(1)平均海水面高度相当于正高(H),是大地水准面以上高度的专业名称。大地水准面是,从某种意义上,和平均海水面一样的。
(2) Geoidal height (N) is the separation between the geoid and the ellipsoid (sometimes called Geoidal separation). It can be plus or minus.
A negative geoidal separation indicates that the geoid is below the ellipsoid, and a positive separation is above.
(3) Ellipsoidal height (h) is the distance above or below the ellipsoid (plus or minus). Ellipsoidal height is also called geodetic height.
(2)大地水准面高度(N)是大地水准面和参考椭球面之间的差距(有时称为大地水准面差距)。它可以是正负。
负的大地水准面差距说明大地水准面在参考椭球面之下,正的大地水准面差距说明大地水准面在参考椭球面之上。
(3)大地高(h)是高于或低于椭球的距离(正负)。大地高也被称为大地的高度。 2.2 Map projection 地图投影
2.2.1 Definition of map projection 地图投影的定义
Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the Earth or a portion of the Earth on a flat surface.
Some distortions of conformality , distance, direction, scale, and area always result from the process of map projection .
Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at expense of maximizing errors in others.
So no projection can be simultaneously conformal and area-preserving .
地图投影是试图描述地球的外表或地球的一部分放在平面上时的形状。 一些变形的保形性、距离、方向、比例尺、区域总是源于地图投影的过程。 一些投影减少部分特性的变形以增大其他地区的误差为代价。 所以没有一种变形能同时具有保形性和保区域性。 2.2.2 Distortions of map projection 地图投影变形
Conformality : When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal .
Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles . Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps.
保形性:当地图上任意一点儿地图比例尺在任何时候在任何方向都是相同的,这种投影就是正形投影。
子午线(经度线)和平行线(纬度)相交成直角。 形状在映射地图中被保存为原形。
Distance: A map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of projection to any other place on the map.
距离:地图上任何一点到投影中心的距离是的等距的。
Equidistant projection , a kind of arbitrary projection , is referred to that the distance remains constant after projected along a specific direction, namely along the specific direction, the length ratio is equal to 1.
In the practical applications, the meridians are usually projected as straight lines, and the distances along a longitudinal direction are maintained equal, the angles and areas are distorted.
The equidistant projection is frequently used for drawing traffic map.
等距投影,一种任意投影,被称为投影后沿特定的方向距离保持不变,即沿特定的方向,长度比率等于1。
在实际应用程序中,子午线通常投影为直线,并沿经线方向保持相等的距离,角度和区域发生变形。
等距投影经常用于绘制交通地图。
Direction: A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to another point) are portrayed correctly in all directions.
Scale: Scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the same distance on the earth.
Area: when a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped areas have the same proportional relationship to the areas on the Earth that they represent, the map is an equal-area map .
方向:当方位角(角度线从一个点到另一个点)在所有方向刻画正确地图具有保角性。
比例尺:比例尺是一个描绘在地图上的距离和相同点在地球上的距离之间的关系。
面积:当一个地区描绘在整个地图,所有映射区域与他们所代表的实地具有相同的比例关系,这就是等积地图。
2.2.3 Classification of map projection 地图投影的分类
According to distortion properties, map projections can be generally classified into these kinds:
根据变形属性,地图投影通常可以分为这类:
equal angle (conformal ) projection 等角投影
equal area ( equivalent ) projection
equidistant
(isometric ) projection
arbitrary projection
等积投影
等距投影
任意投影
According to different shapes of easel planes , map projection are generally classified
into three kinds: conic projection, azimuthal projection, and cylindrical projection.
根据不同形状的平面框架,地图投影通常分为三种类型:圆锥投影,方位投影,圆柱投影。
(1) Conic projection are referred to projecting a spherical surface onto a cone . (1)圆锥投影是指将球面投射在锥面上。
Normal (regular) axis tangent conic projection：Seen in right figure, the contact tangent of the cone and the sphere is along a circle.
正轴切圆锥投影:从正确的角度来看,圆锥和球体的切线是一个圆。 Normal (regular) axis secant conic projection：Seen in right figure, the cone touches the sphere along two circles, the one small, the other great。
正轴割圆锥投影:从正确的角度来看,圆锥与圆相交成两个圆形,一个小圆,另一个大圆。
Graticule of normal conic projection: In normal conic projection parallels are projected as concentric arcs of circles, and meridians are projected as straight lines radiating at uniform angular intervals from the apex of the flattened cone.
正轴圆锥投影格网:在正轴圆锥投影中平行线投影为同心圈弧,子午线投影为直线，且在圆锥顶部以同等间隔向外辐射。
Conic projections are not widely used in mapping because of their relative small zone of reasonable accuracy.
圆锥投影不广泛用于地图投影中,因为它们在小的区域具有合理的精度。 The secant case, which produces two standard parallels, is more frequently used with conics.
Even then, the scale of the map rapidly becomes distorted as distance from the correctly represented standard parallel increases.
产生两个标准的平行线的投影,多为割圆锥投影。
即便如此,当离标准线的距离增加时，地图的比例尺迅速变化。 Because of this problem, conic projections are best suited for maps of mid-latitude regions, especially those elongated in an east-west direction.
The United States meets these qualifications and therefore is frequently mapped on conic projections.
因为这个问题,圆锥投影最适合中纬度地区地图,特别是那些在东西方向狭长的区域。
美国满足这些条件,因此经常使用圆锥投影。
Graticule of transverse planar projection: In transverse planar projection, the central meridian and the equator are projected as straight lines perpendicular to each other, the remaining meridians are projected as curves symmetrical to the central meridian, and the remaining parallels are projected as curves symmetrical to the equator.
横轴平面投影格网:在横轴平面投影中,中央子午线和赤道投影为互相垂直的直线,剩下的子午线投影为沿中央子午线对称的曲线,和剩下的平行线投影为沿赤道对称的曲线。
(3) Cylindrical projection is projecting a spherical surface onto a cylinder.
It can be imagined that a cylinder has been wrapped around a globe at the equator. Shown in right figure.
(3)圆柱投影是将球面投影到圆柱上。
可以想象,一个圆柱体沿着球体的赤道线打开。正确的图所示。
If the graticule of latitude and longitude are projected onto the cylinder and the cylinder unwrapped, then a grid-like pattern of straight lines of latitude and longitude would be formed.
如果纬度和经度的格网图投影到圆柱上,将圆柱从中间打开,然后可以看到形成有经度和纬度组成的直线形式的网格。
The meridians of longitude would be equally spaced and the parallels of latitude would remain parallel but may not appear equally spaced anymore.
经度线投影后会是等间距的，纬度平行线将保持平行但是不会再出现等间距的情况。
The cylindrical projections can be further classified.
① A cylinder is tangent or secant to the equator of the Earth is termed normal axis tangent projection or normal axis secant projection.
圆柱投影可以进一步分类。
①一个圆柱体与地球相切或者相割的投影称为正轴切圆柱投影或正轴割圆柱投影。
Normal (regular) axis tangent cylindrical projection：Seen in right figure, the contact tangent of the cylinder and the sphere is along a great circle, which is formed on the surface of the Earth by a plane passing through the center of the Earth.
正轴切圆柱投影:从正确的方向看,圆柱体和球体的切线是一个大圆,这个大在圆地球外表上形成的穿过地球的中心平面。
Normal (regular) axis secant cylindrical projection：Seen in right figure, the cylinder touches the sphere along two small circles, which are formed on the surface of the Earth by two planes not passing through the center of the Earth.
正轴割圆柱投影:在正确的图,圆柱体与球体相交成两个小圆,这两个小圆在地球外表上形成没有穿过地球的中心的平面。
② A cylinder is tangent or secant to the meridian of the Earth is termed traverse cylindrical projection.
②圆柱体与地球相切和相割于子午线称为横圆柱投影。
③ A cylinder is tangent or secant to other points on the globe is called oblique cylindrical projection.
③圆柱体与地球上其他的点相切或相割的投影称为斜圆柱投影。
Gauss-Kruger Projection, namely conformal(equal-angle) transverse tangent elliptic cylindrical projection, is referred to projecting the spherical surface onto elliptic cylinder ( cylindroid) .
The meridian of the Earth ellipsoid is tangent to the elliptic cylinder, and based on the conformality, the region on both sides of the central meridian in a certain range of area are projected onto the elliptic cylinder, then unwrapped.
高斯克吕格投影,即保形(等角投影)横轴切椭圆柱投影,是指球面投影到椭圆柱面上。
地球椭球的子午线是椭圆柱的切线,并在保形性的基础上,该中央子午线两边的一定范围内的地区被投影到椭圆柱上,然后打开椭圆柱即形成投影。
This projection is jointly constructed by C.F. Gauss, 1777—1855 Germany, and J. Krüger，1857—1923.
这个投影由1777 - 1855年的德国的高斯,和1857 - 1923的克吕格共同创造。 Universal Transverse Mercatar projection (UTM ) was invented in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator (Flanders) graphically.
UTM is a kind of transverse conformal secant cylindrical projections.
全球横轴墨卡托投影(UTM)是由福西厄斯•墨卡托(弗兰德斯)在1569年发明的。
UTM是一种横轴等角割圆柱投影。
The properties of Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) are as follows: (1) It is conformal.
(2) Meridians unequally spaced, distance increases away from equator directly proportional to increasing scale.
(3) Loxodromes or rhumb lines are straight.
(4) Used for navigation and regions near equator. 全球横轴墨卡托(UTM)的属性如下: (1)它具有保形性。
(2)子午线不均匀地分布,随着离赤道的距离增大，随着比例尺的增大而增大。 (3)等方位线或罗盘方位线是直的。 (4)用于靠近赤道地区的导航和制图。 2.2.4 how to choose a projection
Choosing a projection is determined by such factors as regional location and shape, map use, accuracy demand, etc.
The rules of choosing a projection are as follows:
(1) A country in the tropics asks for a cylindrical projection. (2) A country in the temperate zone asks for a conical projection. (3) A polar area asks for an azimuthal projection.
选择投影是由区域位置、形状、地图的用途,精度要求等因素决定。 选择投影的规则如下:
(1)在热带地区国家需要使用圆柱投影。 (2)温带国家适用于圆锥投影。 (3)极地区域多使用一个方位投影。
Implicit in these rules of thumb is the fact that these global zones map into the areas in each projection where distortion is lowest:
隐含在这些经验法则中的是,这些全球区域映射到在每个区域投影变形是最低的地方:
(1) Cylindricals are true at the equator and distortion increases toward the poles. (2) Conics are true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and a pole, and distortion increases away from the standard.
(3) Azimuthals are true only at their center point, but generally distortion is worst at the edge of the map.
(1)圆柱投影在赤道地区变形最小，在向两极的过程中变形逐渐增大。
(2)圆锥投影在赤道和北极之间的部分平行线间变形最小,随着远离标准线距离增大变形增大。
(3)等角投影只在他们的中心点没有变形,但在地图边缘变形最大。
For a particular map-use the map may need to be conformal, equal area, or some compromise of these.
In some cases, such as navigation, conformality is absolutely necessary. In statistical mapping, equivalence is necessary.
The final projection choice would seem to be a fairly straightforward function of minimized distortion and special properties.
作为特定用途的地图可能需要保形性、等积性,或一些其他的性质。 在某些情况下,如导航、保形性是绝对必要的。 在统计地图中,等直性是必要的。
最后投影的选择似乎是包含最小变形和特殊性质的简单函数。 2.3 Datums and coordinate system 基准面和坐标系统
A datum is the mathematical model of the Earth used to calculate the coordinates and elevations on any map, chart, or survey system.
Geodetic datums define the size and shape of the Earth and the origin and orientation of the coordinate systems used to map the Earth.
Hundreds of different datums have been used to frame position descriptions since the first estimates of the Earth’s size were made by Aristotle.
But all coordinates reference some particular set of numbers for the size and shape of the Earth.
基准面是在任何地图,海图,测量系统上计算坐标和高程的地球数学模型。 大地基准面定义地球的形状、大小、坐标原点、地图坐标系统的定向 数百种不同的基准面被用来设置位置描述自从亚里士多德第一次定义地球的参数。
但所有坐标都参考一些特定的地球的大小和形状的数据。
For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84 ).
Many countries use their own local datums when they make their maps and surveys.
例如,全球定位系统(GPS)是基于1984年世界大地系统(wgs - 84)建立的。 当他们制作地图和测量时，许多国家使用自己当地的基准面。 2.3.1 Horizontal and vertical datums 水平和高程基准面 In geodesy two types of datums must be considered:
a horizontal datum for location, which forms the basis for computations of horizontal control surveys in which the curvature of the Earth is considered.
a vertical datum for elevation or to which elevations are referred. Vertical control networks provide elevations with reference to a surface of constant gravity force called the geoid.
在大地测量必须考虑两种类型的基准面:
水平基准,是构成了计算考虑地球曲率的水平控制测量的基准面。 高程基准面，高程控制网络为高程计算提供了一个外表重力常数固定的大地水准面。
Almost all maps and charts use mean sea level ( geoid ) for elevation, but they might use any of over hundred different horizontal position datums.
几乎所有的地图和海图使用平均海平面(大地水准面)作为高程基准面,但他
们可能使用任何超过几百个不同水平位置基准面。
One example of horizontal datum is a mathematical surface called a referenced ellipsoid with which positional information ( latitude and longitude ) is referenced to .
水平基准的一个例子是一个称为参考椭球面的数学外表，在这个外表上，点的位置信息(经度和纬度)被引用。
The coordinates for points in specific geodetic surveys and triangulation networks are computed from certain initial quantities ( datums ).
Sometimes, a map will have more than one grid on it. Normally, each grid is for a different datum.
通过计算大地测量和三角测量的特定点来确定初始数据(基准面)。 有时候,地图会有多个网格。通常,每个网格是一个不同的基准。 (1) Horizontal datum and coordinates
A horizontal datum is a surface of constant values that forms the basis for the computations of horizontal control surveys.
In a horizontal datum a reference ellipsoid is used as a mathematical approximation of the shape of the Earth.
Five parameters are required to define a horizontal datum: two to specify the dimensions of the ellipsoid, two to specify the location of an initial point( origin ), and one to specify the orientation ( i.e.,north ) of the coordinate system.
(1)水平基准面和坐标
水平基准是一个常量值的外表,组成了水平控制测量的计算基础。 在水平基准面中参考椭球面作为地球形状的数学近似。
五个参数用来定义一个水平基准面:两个指定椭球体的尺寸,两个指定一个初始点的位置(起源),和一个指定坐标系统的方向(即。,北)。
For example, the radius and flattening of the ellipsoid is selected for the
computations to specify the dimensions of the ellipsoid, the longitude and latitude of an initial point ( origin ) is determined to specify the location, and azimuth of a line ( direction ) is determined to specify the orientation for some other (triangulation) station .
A change in any of these quantities affects every point on the datum.
For this reason, while positions within a system are accurately reliable, data [ such as distance and azimuth derived from computations involving geodetic
positions on different datums ] will be in error [ in proportion to the difference in the initial quantities ].
例如,椭球的半径和扁率被选中去计算指定椭球体的大小,一个初始点的经度和纬度(起源)指定位置,方位线(方向)指定其他(三角)站的方向。
任何这些量的变化影响基准上的每个点。
出于这个原因,在一个系统内的点位准确可靠,数据(各个不同大地水准面上计算的数据如距离和方位)将会是错误(由于初始数量的差异比例)的。
In China, Xi’an Geodetic Coordinate System 1980 is used as a horizontal datum in which the initial point (origin ) is in Shanxi province, Jingyang county, Yongle town, Beihongliu village.
在中国,西安1980年大地坐标系作为水平基准面，它的初始点(起源)是在山西省,阳县,永乐镇北洪流村。
(2)Verical datum and heights 高程基准和高度
The zero surface, to which elevations or heights are referred is called a vertical datum.
The geoid is an equipotential surface of the Earth gravity field that most closely approximates the mean sea surface.
At every point the geoid surface is perpendicular to the local plumb line, therefore a natural reference for heights is measuring along the plumb line.
Heights referred to geoid are called orthometric heights, which stand in contrast to geodetic (ellipsoidal ) heights, which referred the ellipsoid.
海拔或高度的零外表,被称为垂直的基准面。
大地水准面是一个最接**均海面的地球重力场等势面。
大地水准面上的每一个点都垂直于当地铅垂线,因此自然参考高度是沿铅垂线测量的。
基于大地水准面的高程称为正高,与大地(椭圆形)高形成比照,大地高是基于椭球面的。
Because the geoid surface can not be directly seen, and the heights above or below the geoid surface can not be actually measured, the surface must be inferred by making gravity measurements and by modeling it mathematically.
For practical purposes, it is assumed that at the coastline the geoid and the MSL surfaces are essentially the same, nevertheless, heights measured on inland is relative to the zero height at the coast, which in effect means relative to MSL.
Therefore mean sea level is used as a plane upon which the heights of features on ,above or below the ground can be referenced or described .
因为大地水准面外表不能直接观测到,高于或者低于大地水准面的高度实际上不能测量,这个外表必须进行重力测量和数学建模。
出于实用目的,假设大地水准面的海岸线和与平均海水面基本上是相同的,然而,在内陆测量高程参照零高度海岸线,这实际上意味着参考了平均海水面。
因此平均海平面是用作一个平面，在这个平面上高度特性,无论高于或低于地面都可以引用或描述。
In China, mean sea leve of Huanghai is used as a vertical datum in which the initial point ( leveling origin ) is in Shandong province, Qingdao city, Guanxiang mountain.
在中国,黄海平均海水面作为初始点的垂直基准，它的初始点(水准原点)在山东省青岛市,观象山。
2.3.2 Coordinate conversions 坐标转换
A coordinate conversions or transformation is the process of bringing a coordinate from one defined coordinate (or zone) into another through a series of algorithms based on the geodetic latitude and geodetic longitude position of the point.
Coordinate systems based on the same datum retain a perfect mathematical relationship, allowing coordinate values to be precisely transformed between them.
But the coordinates for a point on the Earth’s surface in one datum will not match the coordinates from another datum for that same point.
坐标转换的过程是将坐标从一个定义的坐标(或区)转换到另一个坐标基于大地大地经度和纬度的位置点的算法。
坐标系统基于相同的基准具有相同的数学关系,允许坐标值之间进行精确的转换。
但基于某个基准的地球外表上的点的坐标将与基于另一个基准的相同点不匹配。
The differences occur because of the different ellipsoids used and the probability [ that the centers of earth datum’s ellipsoid is oriented differently with respect to the Earth’s center].
A grid shift exists between datums because each datum has a different origin. A datum conversion is the process of bringing coordinate values referenced to one defined datum into another datum systems.
Complete datum conversion is based on seven parameter transformations that include three translation parameters, three rotation parameters and a scale parameter.
出现差异的原因是使用了不同的椭圆体和概率(地球基准的椭球的中心相对于地球的中心将会是不同的)。
由于每个基准面有不同的起点，不同基准之间坐标网格将会变化,因为每个数据都有一个不同的起源。
基准转换的过程是将坐标值从一个基准面转换到另一个基准系统。
完全的数据转换是基于七参数转换,这七个参数包括三个平移参数,三个旋转参数和一个比例尺参数。
Chapter 3 Distance measurement 距离测量 3.1 Taping and Tacheometry丈量和视距测量
One of the fundamentals of surveying is the need to measure distance. Distances are not necessarily linear, especially if they occur on the spherical earth.
Distance between two points can be horizontal, slant, or vertical.
Horizontal and slant distances can be measured with lots of equipments and techniques of measurement (such as taping, tacheometry, electro-optical distance measuring) depending on the desired quality of the results.
测量的基本原理之一是需要测量的距离。
距离不一定是线性的,特别是如果他们出现在地球球面。 两点之间的距离可以水平、倾斜或垂直。
水平和倾斜距离可以根据不同的精度要求通过多种测量设备和技术(如钢尺、视距测量、光电测距)来测量。
In plane surveying, distance measurement refers to the measurement of the horizontal distance between two points.
If the points are at different elevations, then the distance is the horizontal length between plumb lines at the points.
在平面测量中、距离测量指的是测量两点之间的水平距离。
如果所测点在不同的海拔,那么所测距离就是这些点的距离就是沿着铅垂线的水平距离。
3.1.1 Pacing and Odometer 步量和里程
Pacing is a very useful form of measurement though it is not precise, especially when surveyors are looking for survey marks in the field.
pacing can be performed at an accuracy level of 1/100~1/500 when performed on
horizontal land, while the accuracy of pacing can’t be relied upon when pacing up or down steep hills.
The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to any vehicle and directly registers the number of revolutions of a wheel.
With the circumference of the wheel known, the distance can be determined. 步量是一种非常有用的测量虽然不精确,特别是当调查员在野外寻找调查标志。
步量可以以1/100 ~ 1/500的精度级别在水平土地上测量,而步量的准确性不可以确定当步量上下陡峭的山峰时。
里程表是一个简单的装置,可以直接附加到任何车辆和直接寄存储轮子的圈数。
当车轮的周长知道了,就可以确定距离。 3.1.2 Taping丈量
Taping is a very common technique for measuring horizontal distance between two points.
The commonly used taping tools (Shown in figure below) are plastic tapes or poly tapes, steel tape, marking pole, marking pin, spring balance, plumb bob, etc.
丈量是一种很常见的测量两点间的水平距离的技术。
常用的丈量工具(以下图所示)是塑料尺或聚酯尺,钢卷尺,标竿,标记钉、弹簧平衡尺,铅锤等等。
Depending on the desired accuracies, there are ordinary taping and precise taping.
Ordinary taping refers to measuring the distance with the very common tapes, such as the plastic tapes or poly tapes.
These kinds of tapes have low precision of 1/3000~1/5000. 根据所需的精度,有普通的丈量和精确的丈量。
普通丈量指的是用普通的尺子测量距离,如塑料尺或聚酯尺。 这些尺子的精度较低为1/3000 ~ 1/5000。
Precise taping refers to measuring the distance with the steel tapes and which have higher precision of 1/10000~1/30000.
Invar tapes are a kind of alloy (composed of 35% nickel and 65% steel) with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Such tapes are very useful in precise distance measurement.
Many tapes are now graduated with foot units on one side and metric units on the reverse side.
In China, the commonly used distance units are metric, meters, centimeter and minimeter.
精确丈量是指测量的距离使用具有更高精度的1/10000 ~ 1/30000的钢尺。 铟瓦尺是一种具有非常低的热膨胀系数的合金(由35%和65%镍钢)构成的尺子。这些尺子在精密距离测量是非常有用的。
很多尺子上现在一边刻有英尺单位和在反面一边有公制单位。 在中国,常用的距离度量单位为：米、厘米、毫米。
To measure the horizontal distance between the two points A and B, it can be done like this (shown in figure below):
With zero of the tape to the higher point A, and the tape along the line AB to the point B, the horizontal distance can be measured by using the plumb bob with plumb line entering to the point B.
测量AB两点间的水平距离,这是可以像这样做(如以下图):
将带有0的尺子放在较高点A,将尺子沿AB 拉至B点,水平距离在B点可以用带有锤球的铅垂线测量。
To judge the exact horizontal line, the tape should be moved up and down along the plumb line, and the tape men will find the changes of reading in the tape. The shortest reading of the tape is the horizontal distance.
If the distance is longer than the length of tape, then the long distance can be divided into several segments and the total distance can be obtained by plus each segment together, that is Dnlq为了判断准确的水平线,尺子应沿铅垂线上下移动,并持尺人将找出尺子的读数变化。尺子最短的读数就是水平距离。
如果所测距离长于尺子的长度,那么这段距离可以分为几段,总距离可以通过将每段距离加起来得到，也就是 Dnlqin which D is the total distance, n is the number of the segments, l is the tape length, and q is the remainder less than one tape length.
D是总距离,n是段的数量,l是尺子长度,q是剩下不到一个尺段的长度。 3.1.3 Tacheometry 视距测量
Tacheometry is an optical solution to measure the distance.
It involves the measurement of a related distance parameter either by means of a fixed-angle intercept, or by multiplying the stadia interval factor.
Theodolite tacheometry is an example of stadia system.
The theodolite is directed at the level rod held vertically and the line of sight of the telescope is horizontal, seen in the following figure.
视距测量是一个光学方案来解决测量距离的问题。
它涉及到一个相关的距离参数的测量，或者通过应用固定字幅的截距,或者通过乘以视距间隔参数。
经纬仪视距测量是视距仪系统的一个例子。
经纬仪对准垂直放置的水平杆和望远镜的视线是水平的,见以下图。 The horizontal stadia principle is 水平视距公式为： DClfp
where D is the distance between the center of telescope and level rod, C is the distance from the center of telescope to principal focus, f is the principal focal
distance, l is the stadia interval, p is the distance between top and bottom stadia hairs.
The formula above can be transformed as
D是望远镜的中心和水平杆之间的距离,C是望远镜中心到主焦点的距离,f是主焦距,l是视距间隔,p是上下视距丝之间的距离。
flCkl上面的公式可以转换为 Dpin which k is the stadia interval factor. k是视距间隔的常数。
By reading the top and bottom stadia hairs on the telescope view and then the horizontal distance from center of telescope to level rod can be obtained by multiplying the stadia interval factor k by the stadia interval.
Usually the nominal stadia interval factor k equals 100, which is a constant for a particular instrument as long as conditions remain unchanged, but it may be determined by observation in practice.
Applications of tacheometry include traversing and leveling for the topographic surveys, location of detail surveys, etc. The relative precision is 1:1000 to 1:5000.
通过读取望远镜顶部和底部视距丝,然后望远镜中心到水平杆之间的水平距离可以通过视距间隔因子k乘以视距间隔得到。
通常的标示的视距间隔因子k = 100,这是一个特定的仪器常数只要条件保持不变,但它可能是由在实践中的观察环境决定。
视距测量的应用程序包括地形调查中的导线测量和水准测量、详细调查的位置等。他们的相对精度为1:1000到 1:5000。
Stadia are a form of tacheometry that uses a telescopic cross-hair configuration to assist in determining distances.
A series of rod readings is taken with a theodolite and the resultant intervals are used to determine distances.
The features of tacheometry are as follows:
(1) Its precision is Low, generally less than direct measurement. (2) Its accuracy is greatly reduced with the distance increase.
(3) It is convenient and flexible to be used, not limit by topography.
视距仪是一种视距测量的一种形式，它使用刻有的十字丝协助确定距离。 用经纬仪获取一系列读数，最终的间隔是用来确定距离。 视距测量的特点如下:
(1)其精度较低,普遍低于直接测量。 (2)随着距离增加，准确性大大降低。 (3)使用方便灵活,不受地形限制。
The electronic distance measurement (EDM) was first introduced in 1950s by the founders of Geodimeter Inc.
The advent of EDM instrument has completely revolutionized all surveying procedures, resulting in a change of emphasis and techniques.
Distance can now be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless of terrain conditions.
EDM instruments refer to the distance measurement equipments using light and radio waves. Both light waves and radio waves are electromagnetic.
They have identical velocities in a vacuum (or space) to 3×108m/s.
电子测距仪(EDM)在1950年代由光电测距仪公司的创始人首次引入
EDM仪器的出现完全彻底改变了所有测量程序,导致过程和技术上的变化。 无论地形条件如何，距离可以方便的,快速的、准确性的测量。 电子测距仪指的是使用光和无线电波测距的设备。光波和无线电波都是电磁波。
他们在真空有相同的速度(或空间)3×108米/秒。
These velocities, which are affected by the air’s density, are reduced and need to be recalculated in the atmosphere.
The basic principle of EDM instruments is that distance equals time multiplied by velocity. In the figure below.
这些速度受空气的密度的影响,在大气中会降低并且需要重新计算。 EDM仪器的基本原理是,距离等于时间乘以速度。如以下图所示。
The EDM instruments may be classified according to the type and wavelength of the electromagnetic energy generated or according to their operational range.
EDM instruments (seen in the figure below) use three different wavelength bands:
电子测距仪可根据类型和电磁波产生的波长或根据其操作范围分类。 电子测距仪(见以下图)使用三个不同的波长带:
(1) Microwave systems with range up to 15 km, wavelength 3cm, not limited to line of sight and unaffected by visibility.
(2) Light wave systems with range up to 5km, visible light, lasers and distance reduced by visibility.
(3) Infrared systems with range up to 3 km, limited to line of sight and limited by rain, fog, other airborne particles.
Although there is a wide variety of EDM instruments available with different wavelengths, there are basically only two methods of measurement employed, which may divide the instruments into two classification as electro-optical (light waves) and microwaves (radio waves) instruments.
(1)微波系统范围是15公里,波长3厘米,不限于视线和可见性。 (2)光波系统范围5公里,可见光、激光和随着距离能见度降低。
(3)红外光波系统范围3公里，人眼和雨,雾天气不可见,空气悬浮颗粒。 虽然有采用不同的波长的各种各样的电子测距仪,基本上只有两种测量方法,可将仪器分为两类分别为光电(光波)仪器和微波(无线电波)仪器。
They function by sending light waves or microwaves along the path to be measured and measuring the time differences between transmitted and received signals, or in measuring the phase differences between transmitted and received signals in returning the reflecting light wave to source.
Modern EDM instruments are fully automatic to such an extent that, after the instruments are set up on one station, emits a modulated light beam to a passive reflector set up on the other end of the line to be measured.
The operator need only depress a button, and the slope distance is automatically displayed.
他们通过沿着待测路径发送光波或微波和测量信号发送和接收之间的时间差异,或在测量传送和接收信号反射光波回到源头的相位差。
现代EDM仪器是全自动,仪器设置在一个测站后,发出一个调制光束到待测线的另一端的被动反射器。
操作员只需要按下一个按钮,斜距将会自动显示。
More complete EDM instruments also have the capability of measuring horizontal and vertical or zenith angles as well as the slope distance.
These instruments referred to as total station instruments.
更完整的电子测距仪也有测量水平、垂直或天顶角度以及斜距的能力。 这些工具被称为全站仪。
Chapter 4 Elevation Measurement高程测量 4.1 Basic concept基本概念
A point’s elevation is a vertical distance from a reference datum.
In china, 7 years of observations at tidal stations in Qingdao from 1950 to 1957 were reduced and adjusted to provide the Huanghai vertical datum of 1956.
一个点的高程是到参考基准面的垂直距离。
在中国,从1950年到1957年在青岛的潮汐电站的观测是为了调整以提供1956年黄海高程基准面。
In the 1987, this datum was further refined to reflect long periodical ocean tide change to provide a new national vertical datum of 1985, according to the observations at tidal stations from 1952 to 1979.
在1987年,这个数据被进一步细化,根据从1952年到1979年的观察潮汐站数据提供了一个新的国家1985年高程基准以反映海洋潮汐长期的周期性变化。
In surveying, mean sea level (MSL) is universally used as the vertical reference datum, whose elevation is assigned zero, although, strictly speaking, the national vertical datum may not precisely agree with the MSL at specific points on the earth’s surface.
Elevation of any feature on the earth can be described by the vertical distance above or below the MSL.
Permanent points (benchmarks) whose elevations have been precisely determined are available in most areas for survey use.
在测量,平均海平面(实验室)是普遍用作高程参考基准面,其海拔分配为零,虽然严格来说,在地球外表某些特定的点全国垂直基准可能与平均海水面不完全拟合。
地球上高程可以被描述为高于或低于平均海水面的垂直距离。
已经精确地确定的永久点(基准点)的高程，可用在大多数地区供测量使用。 According to the types of instruments and the different measuring methods, elevation measurement may be classified into several kinds.
The most precise method of determining elevations and most commonly used method are direct or spirit leveling which means measuring the vertical distance directly.
Trigonometric or indirect leveling is realized by measuring vertical angles and horizontal or slope distances.
Stadia leveling, in which vertical distances are determined by tacheometry using engineer’s transit and level rod; plane-table and alidade and level rod; or self-reducing tacheometer and level rod
根据仪器的类型和不同的测量方法,高程测量可分为几种。 确定高程最精确和最常用的方法是直接水准测量，这意味着直接测量垂直距离。
三角或间接水准测量通过测量垂直角度和水平或倾斜距离来实现。 在视距水准测量里的垂直距离取决于工程师使用的视距仪、经纬仪、水平标杆、平板仪、照准仪和水平尺,差分视距仪和水准尺。
Barometric leveling is that of measuring the differences in atmospheric pressure at various stations by means of a barometer.
气压水准测量是在不同的测站使用气压计测量大气压力的差异得到的。 Gravimetric leveling is that of measuring the differences in gravity at various
stations by means of a gravimeter for geodetic purposes.
重力水准测量是使用重力仪测量各测站的重力差异得到的。
Inertial positioning system, in which an inertial platform has three mutually perpendicular axes, one of which is ‘up’, so that the system yields elevation as one of the outputs.
Vertical accuracies from15 to 50 cm in distances of 60 and 100 km, respectively, have been reported.
惯性定位系统中,一个惯性平台有三个互相垂直的轴,其中之一是“起向上的”,因此,系统输出高程作为输出结果。
高程精度在不同的报告中为15 到50厘米当距离为60 - 100公里时。
The equipment cost is extremely high and applications are restricted to very large projects where terrain, weather, time and access impose special constraints on traditional methods.
GPS survey elevations are referenced to the ellipsoid but can be corrected to the datum if an sufficient number of points with datum elevations are located in the region surveyed.
Standard deviations in elevation differences of 0.053 to 0.094 m are possible under these conditions above.
设备成本非常高，在地形、天气、时间或者增加其他特定强制条件的传统测量方法中应用到大的工程项目中是受限的。
GPS测量高程是参照椭球面的，但当拥有所测地区的高程基准数据时，高程数据是可以纠正的。
在这种情况下可能高程偏差可能有0.053到0.094米的标准偏差。 4.2 Spirit leveling水准测量
To determine the elevations of desired point B with respect to point of known elevation A. Seen in the figure below.
由已知点A确定所需的B点的高程见以下图。
Level provides a horizontal line of sight to get the readings of the leveling rods erected in two points.
Given the elevation differences, the unknown points on the earth can be calculated according to the known points.
水准尺为立在两点间的水准尺提供了用于读数的水平视线。 考虑到海拔差异,地球上的未知点可以根据已知点计算。 4.2.1 Principles of spirit leveling水准测量的原则
Spirit leveling is determination of differences in elevation between points that are apart from each other by using a surveyor’s level together with graduated leveling rods.
水准测量通过运用测量员的水准尺和带有刻划的水准杆测定各分隔高程点之间的高差。
One leveling rod at the point A is called backsight (BS), and the other leveling rod at the point B (it may be turning point, benchmark, or temporary benchmark) is called foresight (FS).
A点放置的水准尺被称为后视(BS),和在B点的水准尺(可能是转折点,基准,点或临时基准点)被称为前视(FS)。
‘HA+a’ refers to the height of Instrument (HI) which is the elevation of the line of sight through the level.
The elevation of BM (benchmark) is known to be ‘HA’ above geoid. “HA +a“是指通过水准仪的水平视线的高程被称为仪器(HI)高。 基准点的高程(基准)被认为是大地水准面之上的HA。
The level is set up at intermediate point between A and B, and rod readings are taken at both locations as ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively.
水准仪设置在A和B之间的中间点,在两个地点标杆读数分别作为“A”和“B”。
The differences in elevation between the two points is HAb=a-b. 两个点之间的高度差异Hab= a - b。
In addition to determining the elevation of point B, the elevations of any other points, lower than the line of sight and visible from the level, can be determined in a similar manner.
Owing to refraction, actually the line of sight is slightly curved, the effects of earth curvature and refraction for the horizontal distance can be reduced to a negligible amount and no correction for curvature and refraction is necessary if backsight and foresight distances are balanced fairly in practical operation.
除了确定B点的高程,其他低于视线和可见级别的点的高程,可以以类似的方式决定的。
实际上由于折射,视线略弯曲,地球曲率和折光率的影响使水平距离可以有微不足道变化，在实际操作中当后视和前视的距离相等时，地球曲率和折光率改正是没有必要的。
4.2.2 Leveling instruments and tools水准测量仪器和工具
Levels, leveling rods and rod supports are commonly used instruments and tools for spirit leveling.
According to different precisions, in China, surveyor's levels are classified into four grades, which are DS05, DS1, DS3, and DS10. Numbers after letters ‘DS’ represent their precisions.
The level is an instrument designed primarily to provide a horizontal line of sight.
Each level instrument has three main parts, which are telescope, spirit level and pedestal. Structures of an ordinary level are shown in the following figure.
水准仪,标杆和尺垫是水准测量常用的仪器和工具。
根据不同的精度,在中国,测量员的水准仪分为四个等级,DS05,DS1、DS3,DS10。字母“DS”后的数字代表他们精度。
水准仪是主要用来提供水平视线的仪器。
每一个仪器都有三个主要部分,望远镜,水准仪和基座。一个普通水平的结构如以下图所示。
Automatic level is referred to that, in a certain vertical axis inclined range, a compensator is used to obtain the line of sight automatically, and get leveling rod readings. Structures of an automatic level are shown in next figure.
自动安平水准仪是指,在一定的垂直轴倾斜范围内、补偿器是用来自动获取视线,并获得水准尺读数。自动安平水准仪的结构下如以下图。
Some kinds of leveling rods and rod supports are shown in the figure below. 一些种类的标杆和尺垫如以下图所示。 4.2.4 Usages of level水准仪的用法 The steps of using level are as follows: (1) Placement of level
First the tripod is opened and placed at proper height, roughly level and securely. Then the level is connected to the tripod with a center screw. (2) Aiming
Foresight aiming, eyepiece focusing and objective lens focusing, the vertical line of the cross hair is aimed at leveling rod.
使用水准仪的步骤如下: (1)放置水准仪
首先打开三脚架，放置在适当的高度,大致整平、固定。 然后连接水准仪到三脚架中心旋钮。 (2)对中
瞄准前视,目镜和物镜聚焦,十字架的垂直线对准水准尺。 (3) Exact leveling (automatic level does not need this step)
Adjusting tilting screw, the bubble must be centered before reading. (4) Reading and recording
(3)精确平整(自动安平水准仪不需要此步骤)调整倾斜螺旋,读数之前气泡居中。(4)读数并记录
4.3 Trigonometric leveling三角高程测量
Trigonometric leveling is used where difficult terrain, such as mountainous areas, precludes the use of conventional differential leveling.
在地形复杂的地区,例如山区,使用三角高程测量，排除了使用传统微分水准测量。
The modern approach is to measure the slope distance and vertical angle to the point in question.
Slope distance is measured by EDM and the vertical (or zenith) angle by theodolite, or total station.
现代的方法是测量点的斜距和竖直角的问题。
斜距是由EDM测量的和垂直(或天顶)角使用经纬仪或全站仪测量。
The basic concept of trigonometric leveling can be seen from the figure. When measuring the vertical angle α and the horizontal distance S is used, and then the difference in elevation hAB between ground points A and B is therefore:
三角水准测量的基本概念从图中可以看到：当测量竖直角α和水平距离S,
h然后地面点之间的高差A和B为: ABStanivwhere i is the vertical height of the measuring center of the instrument above A and v is the vertical height of the center of the target above B .
I是A上安置的仪器中心所测的高程，v是目标B中心的垂直高度。
The vertical angles are positive for angles of elevation and negative for angles of depression.
Trigonometrical leveling method of determining difference in elevation is limited to horizontal distance less than 300 m, when moderate precision is sufficient, and to
proportionately shorter distances as high precision is desired.
For the distance beyond 300m the effects of curvature and refraction must be considered and applied.
To eliminate the uncertainty in the curvature and refraction correction,
vertical-angle observations are made at both ends of the line as close in point of time as possible.
竖直角是仰角是正的和俯角是负的。
三角水准测量的方法确定的高差仅限于水平距离不到300米,此时精度可以到达中等水平,高精度则要求相对较短的距离。
当距离超过300米时，必须考虑曲率和折射的影响。
为了消除的曲率的不确定性和折射改正,在两端的点尽头的高度角的观测应尽可能在相同的时间点完成。
This pair of observations is termed reciprocal vertical-angle observation.
The correct difference in elevation between the two ends of the line is the mean of the two values computed both ways either with or without taking into account curvature and refraction.
这对观测称为垂直角对测。
导线的两端之间的高差是考虑折光率和曲率以及不考虑折光率的曲率两种计算方法的平均值。
Chapter 5 Angle Measurement 角度测量 5.1 Basic concept基本概念
The location of points and the orientation of line frequently depend upon the measurement of angles and directions.
点的位置和直线的方向经常取决于角度和方向的测量。 4.1.1 Horizontal and vertical angles 水平角和竖直角
An angle is the difference in direction of two intersecting lines. Usually the units of angular measurement employed in practice are degrees, minutes, and seconds, the sexagesimal system.
Radians may be used in computations, in fact are employed extensively in high-speed electronic computers. In surveying, horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental measurements.
一个角度是两个相交线在方向上的差异。通常在实践中使用的角度测量单位度,分和秒,六十进制系统。
可用于计算弧度,事实上在高速电子电脑中广泛使用。在测量中,水平和垂直角度是基本的测量。
A horizontal angle is the angle formed in a horizontal plane by two intersecting vertical planes or the angle between the projections of the lines onto a horizontal plane.
水平角是由两个相交的竖直平面在水平面上形成的交线或线在水平面上的投影所形成的角度。
Observations to different elevation points B and C from A will give the
horizontal angle ∠bac which is the angle between the projections of two lines (AB and AC) onto the horizontal plane.
从点A观察不同的高程点B和C就会得到水平角∠bac，这个角也是两条直
线AB和AC在水平面上投影所形成的角度。
Although the points observed are at different elevations, it is always the horizontal angle and not the space angle.
虽然观测的点在不同的高程,但测得的总是水平的角度,而不是空间角度。 The horizontal angle used primarily to obtain relative direction to a survey control point, or to topographic detail points, or to points to be set out.
水平角主要用来获得测量控制点,或地形的碎部点,或放样点的相对方向。 A vertical angle is an angle measured in a vertical plane which is referenced to a horizontal line by plus (up) or minus (down) angles.
竖直角是一个在垂直面上测量的角，竖直角以水平线为基础加上或减去一定的角度。
Plus and minus vertical angles are some times referred to as elevation or depression angles, respectively.
A vertical angle thus lies between 0°and ±90°. 正负竖直角有时分别被称为仰角和俯角。 一个竖直角的范围位于0°和±90°之间。
Observations to elevation points E from horizontal plane (H) will give the plus vertical angle α1, and observations to elevation points F from horizontal plane (H) will give the minus vertical angle α2.
从水平面H观测高程点E会得到正的竖直角α1,从水平面H观测高程点F将得到负的竖直角度α2。 Vertical line Vertical angles are used in the correction of slope E distance to the horizontal or in height determined. 垂直角度用于将斜距改正为水平距离或者 高程测量中。 αHorizontal D For the most part, the instrument used in the
αmeasurement of angles is called a transit or theodolite, although angles can be measured with clinometers, F sextants, or compasses. 4.1.2 Direction of line
Standard directions applied in surveying are commonly three kinds: (1) True meridian direction (True north direction)
Meridian plane is composed by any point on the surface and the earth's rotation axis. The intersection of the meridian plane and the earth's surface is called true meridian. 在大多数情况下,用于测角的仪器通常称为经纬仪,虽然测量角度也可以使用测斜仪、六分仪、或罗盘。 直线方向
应用于测量通常三种标准方向为: (1)真子午方向(真北方向)
子午面是由地球的旋转轴上的任意一点组成。 子午面和地球外表的交线被称为真子午线。
Tangent direction of true meridian at a point on the surface of the earth is called the point’s true meridian direction, also known as true north direction.
The true meridian direction at any point of the surface can be determined by
application of astronomical measurement method or gyro theodolite.
真子午线在地球外表某一点的切线方向称为该点真子午线方向,也称为真北方向。
地球外表某一点的真北方向可以通过天文测量方法或陀螺经纬仪得到。 (2) Magnetic meridian direction (Magnetic north direction)
Magnetic meridian plane is composed by any point on the surface and the earth's magnetic poles.
The intersection of the magnetic meridian plane and the earth's surface is called magnetic meridian.
(2)磁子午线方向(磁北方向)
磁子午面是由地球的磁极外表上任意一点组成。
磁子午面和地球外表的交线被称为磁子午线。
Tangent direction of magnetic meridian at a point on the surface of the earth is called the point’s magnetic meridian direction, also known as magnetic north direction.
地球上某一点沿磁子午线的切线方向称为磁子午线方向,也称为磁北方向。 The magnetic meridian direction at any point of the surface can be determined by application of a compass.
地球上任一点的磁子午线方向可以通过使用罗盘测得。
(3) Vertical coordinates axis direction (Coordinate north direction)
Gauss coordinate system is commonly used in surveying, the north direction of the vertical axis is called vertical coordinates axis direction, also known as coordinate north direction.
(3)垂直坐标轴线方向(坐标北方向)
测量中经常使用高斯坐标系统，垂直轴的北方向叫做垂直坐标轴线方向,也被称为坐标北方向。
In surveying, directions are given by azimuths and bearings.
Azimuth is the horizontal angle measured in a clockwise direction from the standard north direction.
在测量,方向是由方位角和方位确定。
方位角是一个沿标准北方向顺时针测得的水平角。 Azimuth ranges in magnitude from 0°to 360°, values in excess of 360°, which are sometimes encountered in computations, are simply reduced by 360°, before final listing.
方位角范围为0°- 360°,有时候在计算中会遇到方位角超过360°，那么只需减去360°即可输出最终结果。 True north
With reference to different standard direction, Magnetic north Coordinate north azimuth can be defined as true azimuth (A),
magnetic azimuth (Am), and coordinate azimuth (α). Bearing is the traditional way of stating the orientation of the line. It is actually the angle measured from the north or south. Am 参照不同的标准方向，方位角可以被定义为真方 位角(A),磁方位角(Am),和坐标方位角(α)。
A 方位是描述直线方向的传统方法。它实际上是从北边 α 1 或南边测量的。
The bearing, which can be measured clockwise or counterclockwise from the north or south end of the meridian, is always accompanied by letters that locate the quadrant in which the line falls.
方位,可以从北部或南部子午线沿着顺时针或逆时针方向测量，总是用字母来表示线所处的象限。
For example, bearing N30°W indicates a line trending 30°west of the north. It is equal to the azimuth α1 =330°.
Bearing S22°W indicates a line trending 22°west of the south. It is equal to the azimuth α2 =202°.
例如,方位N30°W说明直线在北偏西30°方向。它等于方位角α1 = 330°。 方位S22°W表示直线在南偏西22°方向。它等于方位角为α2 = 202°。 5.2 Theodolite经纬仪
5.2.1 Classification of theodolites经纬仪的分类
The theodolite is an instrument designed for the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. 经纬仪是一个测量的水平和垂直的角度的仪器。
There are two kinds of theodolites: optical theodolites and electronic theodolites. According to different precisions, in China, the theodolites are usually J1, J2, J6 and J15, etc.
Numbers after the letters represent their precisions, mean square error (MSE) of outdoor direction observations by one round.
有两种类型的经纬仪:光学经纬仪和电子经纬仪。
根据不同的精度,在中国,经纬仪通常分为J1,J2,J6 J15等。
字母后数字的代表他们精度，即野外观测方向的一测回中误差(MSE)。 5.2.2 Structures of optical theodolite 光学经纬仪的结构
The optical theodolite contains a horizontal circle and vertical circle of either glass or silver.
The horizontal and vertical circles of optical theodolite can be linked to circular protractors graduated from 0° to 360°in a clockwise manner set in horizontal and vertical plane.
The horizontal circle is used when measuring or laying off horizontal angles and the vertical circle is used to measure or lay off vertical angles.
光学经纬仪包含用玻璃或银制作的水平度盘和垂直度盘。
光学经纬仪的水平度盘和垂直度盘有一个圆形量角器在水平和垂直平面上以顺时针方向刻划了0°- 360°。
测量或放样水平角度时使用水平度盘，竖直度盘是用来测量或放样垂直角度。
The geometric conditions that an optical theodolite should meet are as follows: 光学经纬仪应满足的几何条件如下:
(1) Level tube axis of horizontal circle should be perpendicular to vertical axis; (2) Collimation axis should be perpendicular to horizontal axis; (3) Horizontal axis should be perpendicular to vertical axis. (1)水准管轴应垂直于竖直轴; (2)视准轴应垂直于水平轴;
(3)水平轴应垂直于竖直轴。
If the geometry of the theodolite is perfect, then the line of sight will sweep out a vertical plane when the telescope is elevated or depressed.
如果经纬仪的各项几何条件符合,然后视线中将会出现一个垂直平面当望远镜时升高或降低时。
5.2.3 Electronic theodolite电子经纬仪
Modern electronic digital theodolites contain circular encoders that sense the rotations of the spindles and the telescope, convert these rotations into horizontal and vertical (or zenith) angle electronically, and display the value of the angles on liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or light-emitting diode displays (LEDs).
These readouts can be recorded in a conventional field book or can be stored in a date collector for future printout or computation.
现代电子数字经纬仪包含圆形编码器用来感应主轴和望远镜的旋转,并将这些旋转转化为水平和竖直角,并将结果显示在液晶显示器(lcd)或发光二极管(led)中。
这些读数可以记录在传统记录手簿上也可以存储在一个数字存储器中以供将来打印或计算
The instrument contains a pendulum compensator or some other provision for indexing the vertical circle readings to an absolute vertical direction.
The circle can be set to zero reading by a simple press of a button or initialized to any value on the instrument.
该仪器包含一个摆补偿器或其他在完全的垂直方向提供搜索竖盘读数的设备。
度盘仅按一个按钮或初始化仪器上的任何值就可以将读数设置为零。 5.3 Angle measurement角度测量
1. Horizontal angle measurement水平角测量
A horizontal angle in surveying has a direction or sense, that is, it is measured or designed to the right or to the left, or it is considered clockwise or counterclockwise.
In figure below, the angle at O from A to B is clockwise and the angle from B to A is counterclockwise.
在测量中,水平角有一个定向问题，也就是说,它是测量的右边还是左边,或被认为是顺时针还是逆时针方向。
在图下面,O从A到B的角是顺时针方向,角度从B到A是逆时针方向。a Then leveled over at station O , then a simple horizontal angle measurement between surveying point O , A and B O2 β A would be taken as follows:
然后在O测站整平,测站点O的水平角测量，在点 O b A和B之间操作将如下:
A1 (1) Commencing on, ‘face left’, the target set at survey point A is carefully bisected . β O1 B (1)开始,盘左,在测站点A的目标被仔细的分为两部分。 The reading on horizontal scale is 50°06′12″. Horizontal plane B1 水平度盘读数为50°06′12”。
(2) The upper plate clamp is released and telescope is turned clockwise to survey point B, and the reading on horizontal circle is 82°07′30″.
(2)上盘夹释放,将望远镜顺时针转向B点，水平度盘上的读数为82°07′30”。 (3)The horizontal angle is then the difference of the two direction, i.e. β1=(82°07′30″. - 50°06′12″) = 32°01′18″.
(4) Change face and observe point B on ‘face right’, and note the reading 212°50′25″.
(3)然后水平角就是两个方向角的差异,即β1 =(82°07′30”- 50°06′12 )= 32°01′18”。 (4)转换度盘，用盘右观察B点,并记录读数为212°50′25”。
(5) Release upper plate clamp and swing counterclockwise to point A and note the reading 180°49′5″.
(5)释放上盘夹和逆时针转向点A,记录读数为180°49′5”。
(6) The reading or the direction must be subtracted in the same order as β2=( 212°50′25″- 180°49′5″= 32°01′20″.
(7) The mean of two values would be accepted if they are in acceptable agreement. (6)读数和方向必须按相同的方向相减即β2 =(212°50 25”- 180°49′5′= 32°01′20”。 (7)两个值的平均值在误差允许范围内就可以作为最终结果。 2. Vertical angle measurement竖直角测量
The vertical angle measurement is shown in the figure below. The procedures of measuring the vertical angles, elevation angle (α1) and depressions angle (α2), are as follows:
垂直角度测量如以下图所示。测量竖直角、仰角(α1)和俯角(α2)的过程,如下: (1) A theodolite is set up, centered and leveled at station C, then measuring the vertical angle (α1) between line OA and horizontal line OO′.
(1)放置经纬仪,在测站点C对中整平，,然后测量在OA和水平线OO′之间的垂直角度(α1)。
(2) Carefully aiming at the survey point A on the face left, turning the micro screw of the vertical circle to center the tube bubble and the first reading on the vertical scale is L=82°18′00″, then αL=90°-L=7°42′00″.
(2)采用盘左认真对准测站点A,转动竖直度盘的微调旋钮使其对准水准管气泡，首先在竖直度盘上读数为L = 82°18′00”,然后αL = 90°- L = 7°42′00”。
(3) Changing face and observe the survey point A on the face right, and note the reading R=277°40′00″, then αR=R-270°=7°40′00″.
(3)转换度盘,盘右观测测站点A,并记录读数R = 277°40′00”,然后αR = R - 270°= 7°40′00”。
(4) The mean of two values (αL and αR) would be accepted if they are in acceptable agreement. That is, the vertical angle α1= (αL+αR)/2 = [(R-L) - 180°]/2 =7°41′00″.
(4)两个值(αL和αR)平均值如果在误差允许范围内就认为是正确的。即垂直角度α1 =(αL +αR)/ 2 =((R-L)- 180°)/ 2 = 7°41′00”。
In the same way, the vertical angle (α2) between line OB and horizontal line OO′ can be measured as α2=-12°32′00″.
同样的,OB和水平线OO′之间垂直的角度(α2)可以测量得到α2 = -12°32′00”。 Chapter 6 Errors in Measurement测量误差
6.1 Concepts of error误差的概念
Measurements are defined as observations made to determine unknown quantities.
They may be classified as either direct or indirect.
A direct measurement is one where the reading observed represents the quantity measured, without a need to add, take averages or use geometric formulas to compute the value desired.
An indirect measurement requires calculation and can be determined from its mathematical relationship to direct measurements when it is not impossible or practical to make direct measurements.
测量被定义为观察以确定未知的量。 他们可分为直接或间接测量。
直接测量是观测读数代表了待观测量,不再需要叠加,求平均值或使用几何公式来计算所需的值。
一个间接测量当它不能通过直接测量得到，需要计算和它们之间的数学关系求得。
For example, station coordinates can be mathematically computed by measuring angles and lengths of lines between points directly.
例如,测站点的坐标可以通过直接测量两个点之间的角度和距离计算得到。 Therefore the indirect measurements contain errors that were present in the
original direct observations and propagated (distributed) by the computational process. This distribution of errors is known as errors propagation.
因此间接测量包含误差,这种误差表达在原始直接测量中并在计算过程中传播。这种误差的传播被称为误差传播。
Also, it is the indirect nature of measurements that forces the need to often apply some rather sophisticated mathematical procedures to analysis of errors and thus determine a ‘best value’ to represent the size of the quantity.
同时,间接测量的本质就是要经常应用一些相当复杂的数学过程进行误差分析,从而确定“最正确价值”来表示待测量的大小。
6.1.1 Sources and classifications of errors 误差来源和分类
It can be stated unconditionally that all measurements, no matter how carefully executed, will contain error, and so the true value of a measurement is never known, and the exact sizes of the errors present are always unknown.
Even with the most sophisticated equipment , a measurement is only an estimate of the true size of a quantity.
可以无条件地声明,所有测量,无论多么认真执行,都含有误差,所以测量的真值是永远一不知道的,误差确实切大小总是未知的。
即使使用最精密的仪器,测量值只是对真值的估计。
This is because the instruments, as well as the people using them are imperfect, because the environment in which the instruments and people operate influences the process, and because the behavior of people, instruments and the environment can not be fully predicted.
这是因为仪器,以及使用它们的人是不完美的,因为仪器和操作人员所处的环境影响测量过程,因为人的行为,仪器和环境不能完全被预测。
However, measurements can approach their true values more closely as better equipment is developed, environmental conditions improved and observers’ abilities increased, but they can never be exact.
By definition, an error is the difference between a measured value for any quantity and its true value.
The sources of errors fall into three broad categories which are described as follows:
然而,当出现更好的仪器、环境状况改善并且操作人员的能力提高时，测量结果会更接近真值。
根据定义,误差是任何数量的测量值和它的真值之间的差异。 错误的来源可分为三大类,描述如下:
(1) Instrumental Errors are caused by imperfections in instrument construction or adjustment.
(1)仪器误差是由仪器构造或调焦缺陷引起的。
For example, the divisions on a theodolite or total station instrument may not be spaced uniformly, the errors are always present.
2. Natural Error are caused by variation in the surrounding environment conditions. Such as atmospheric pressure, temperatures, wind, gravitational fields, and magnetic fields, etc.
例如,经纬仪或全站仪刻划不一定间隔均匀,误差总是存在的。 2、自然误差是由周围环境条件的变化引起的。 如气压、气温、风、引力场、磁场等的变化。
3. Personal Errors arise due to limitations in human senses. Such as the ability to read a micrometer or to center a level bubble.
The sizes of these errors are affected by personal ability to see and by manual dexterity.
3、人为误差的出现是由于人类的感官的限制。如在千分尺上读数或对准水准管的能力
这些误差的大小受个人能力和手工灵巧度的影响。
These factors may be influenced further by temperature, visibility, and other physical conditions that cause humans to behave in a less precise manner than they would under ideal conditions.
这些因素可能受温度、可见度等其他物理条件的进一步影响导致操作员操作的精度降低并且不如他们理想条件下的操作。
It can be stated with absolute certainty that all measured values contain errors, whether due to lack of refinement in readings, instabilities in environmental conditions, instrumental imperfection or human limitations.
可以百分百地说,所有测量值包含误差，无论是否是由于读数不准确,环境条件不稳定,仪器缺陷或人类的局限性。
Some of these errors result from physical conditions that cause them to occur in a systematic way, whereas others occur with apparent randomness.
其中一些由物理条件引起的误差以一种系统化的方式出现,而另一些则显示出明显的随机性。
Accordingly, errors are classified as either systematic or random. But before
defining the two kinds of errors, it is helpful to define mistakes.
因此,错误分为系统的和随机的。但在定义两种类型的错误之前,定义错误是有用的。
Mistakes or blunders (gross errors) actually are not errors because they usually are so gross in magnitude compared to the other two types of errors.
Carelessness, inattention, improper training, bad habits, poor judgment, adverse observing conditions, and various negative attitudes and emotions are the traces or the common reasons for mistakes.
They are not classified as errors and must be removed from any set of observations.
错误或(粗差)实际上并不是误差,因为相比其他两种类型的误差他们在量级上的错误时如此显而易见。
粗心大意,注意力不集中,不适当的训练,坏习惯,判断力差、不良观察条件以及各种消极态度和情绪是出现错误的常见原因。
他们不能归类为误差,必须从任何一组观测中移除。
For example, omitting a whole tape length when measuring distance, sighting the wrong target in a round of angles, writing down 27.55 for 25.75 in recording. So great care must be taken to obviate them.
例如,测量距离时忽略整个尺长,一测回瞄准错误目标,记录时将写成 27.75。所以必须非常小心排除它们。
Mistakes will never be completely eliminated from measurements, but
surveyor’s careful, attentive, conscientious attitude can reduce the mistakes in most cases.
Through proper training and development of good work habits, development and maintenance of positive attitudes, and understanding the theory and practice involved with the variable being measured, mistakes can be controlled and practically eliminated.
测量错误永远不可能完全消除,但检查员仔细,细心的,认真的态度在大多数情况下可以减少错误。
通过适当的培训和良好的工作习惯的培养,积极的态度养成和保持,理解被测变量所涉及的理论和实践,实际上可以控制和消除错误。
(1) Systematic errors, their magnitude and algebraic sign can be calculated and applied as a correction to the measure quantity, or these errors follow some physical law and thus can be predicted.
Some systematic errors are removed by some correct measurement procedures (e.g. balancing backsight and foresight distances in differential leveling to compensate for earth curvature and refraction).
Others are removed by deriving corrections (e.g. applying a computed correction for earth curvature and refraction in trigonometric leveling).
(1)系统误差,其规模和代数符号可以被计算并作为测量量的改正数,这些误差遵循一些物理定律,从而可以预测。
一些系统误差可以通过一些正确的测量程序消除(如在微分水准测量中平衡后视和前视的距离来弥补地球曲率和折射)。
其他则被改正(如在三角水准测量应用计算的改正数消除地球曲率和折射)。
It is most important for surveyors to know how to deal with systematic errors. The first requirement is to recognize and accept the possible existence of errors. Next, identify the various sources that might be affecting a reading systematically, then, determine what the ‘system’ is.
Is it a constant, linear, or in proportion to the size of the quantity being measured? Or, does it follow some other mathematical relationship? Is there some physics involved?
对测量员来说最重要的是知道如何处理系统误差。
第一个要求是承认并接受可能存在的误差。接下来,确定可能系统的影响读数的各种误差来源,然后,确定“系统”是什么。
是一个常数,线性关系或与待测量层比例关系?或者,它遵循其他一些数学关系吗?有关物理吗?
Once systematic errors discovered and quantified, the errors can be essentially compensated by certain processes of measuring or corrected to reduce their effect.
Careful calibration of all instrument is an essential part of controlling systematic errors.
(2) Random errors. Random (also known as accident) errors are introduced into each measurement mainly because of human and instrument imperfections as well as uncertainties in determining the effects of the environment on measurements.
一旦发现系统误差并将其量化,误差可以被某些测量过程基本消除或改正以减少它们的影响。
认真校准仪器是控制系统误差的一个重要组成部分。
(2)随机误差。每个测量过程中的随机(也称为偶然)误差主要是由人类和仪器的缺陷以及在确定环境对测量的影响时的不确定性造成的。
After all mistakes and systematic errors have been removed from the measured values, the random errors remain.
虽然粗差和系统误差已经从测量值中移除,随机错误依然存在。
In general, random errors are unavoidable and relatively small, and usually do not follow any physical law, but follow random patterns, or the laws of ‘chance’ .
They have unknown signs and are as likely to be negative or positive.
一般来说,随机误差是不可防止的,相对较小,并且通常不遵循任何物理定律,但遵循随机模式,或这是概率法则。
他们的符号是未知的，有可能是正的或者负的。
The magnitude of such errors are unknown , but they can be dealt with and estimated according to the mathematical laws of probability.
这些误差的大小是未知的,但他们可以处理,并且根据概率的数学法则可以被估计。
Examples of random errors are (a) imperfect centering over a ground point during distance measurement with EDM instrument, (b) bubble not centered at the instant a level rod is read, and (c) small errors in reading graduated scales.
Understanding the nature of random errors helps to understand why random errors are never really fully corrected, since the observation of the physical phenomena contains personal, random errors.
随机误差的例子：(a)使用光电测距仪测量距离时地面点的不完全对中(b)水
准尺在读数时水准泡不对中(c)刻盘读数误差。
理解随机误差的本质有助于理解为什么随机误差从未真正完全改正，因为物理现象的观察包含人为和随机误差。
Thus, measurements have ‘uncertainties’ or random errors that remain unquantifiable.
因此,测量的不确定性或随机误差仍然是无法量化的。
Random errors are dealt with by controlling or managing them.
Random errors can only be minimized and controlled, not really fully corrected or eliminated.
随机误差通过控制或管理来处理。
随机误差只能最小化和控制,不是完全改正或消除。 6.2 Analysis of random errors随机误差分析
Random errors are those variables that remain after mistakes are detected and eliminated and all systematic errors have been removed or corrected from the measured values. Random errors are beyond the control of the observers.
So the random errors are errors the occurrence of which does not follow a deterministic pattern, in statistics, are considered as stochastic variables.
Despite their irregular behaviors, the study of random errors in any
well-conducted measuring process or experiment has indicated that random errors follow the empirical rules:
随机误差是消除所有错误和消除所有系统误差后或测量值改正的变量。随机误差超出了观察者的控制。
因此,随机误差是出现并不遵循确定性的模式的误差,在统计学中,视为随机变量。
尽管他们没有规律,但在任何正确操作的测量过程或实验中的研究说明：随机误差遵循经验规则:
(1) Random errors will not exceed a certain amount.
(2) Positive and negative random errors may occur at the same frequency. (3) Errors that are small in magnitude are more likely to occur than those are larger in magnitude.
(4) The mean of random errors tends to zero as the sample size tends to infinite. (1)随机误差不会超过一定数量。
(2)正的和负的随机误差出现的频率相同。 (3)小误差比大误差出现的可能性大。
(4)样本容量趋于无限大时，随机误差趋向于零。
In mathematical statistics, random errors follow statistical behavioral laws such as the laws of probability
在数理统计中,随机误差遵循统计概率法则如概率。
A characteristic theoretical pattern of random error distribution occurs upon analysis of a large number of repeated measurements of a quantity, which conform to normal or Gaussian distribution.
在对一个量的重复观测分析中发现了随机误差分布的理论形式,它符合正态分布或高斯分布。
The plot of error sizes versus probabilities will approach a smooth curve of the
characteristic bell-shape.
This curve is known as the normal error distribution curve, which is also called the probability density function of a normal random variable.
误差的大小对应的概率曲线图将接近钟形光滑曲线的特征。
这条曲线被称为正态误差分布曲线,这也被称为正常随机变量的概率密度函数。
If an event has a probability of 1, it is certain to occur, and therefore the area under the curve represents the sum of all the probabilities of the occurrence of errors.
如果一个事件的概率为1,它一定会发生,因此曲线下的面积代表误差可能出现的所有概率的总和。
Some properties that relate a random variable and its probability density function are useful in understanding of its behavior.
随机变量的一些相关性质及其概率密度函数是对理解随机变量具有很大的帮助。
Mean and standard deviation are two most popular statistical properties of a random variable.
Generally, a random variable which is normally distributed with a mean and standard deviation can be written in symbol form as N(μ,σ2).
They can be explained as follows:
Mean: The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean of a set of data (a sample).
The concept of mean refers to the most probable value of random variable. 平均值和标准偏差是随机变量的两个最普遍的统计特性。
一般来说,一个服从正态分布的随机变量的平均值和标准偏差可以用符号形式表示为N(μ,σ2)。
他们可以解释如下:
平均值:最常用来表示样本的中心趋势的是一组数据(样本)的平均值。 平均值的概念是指随机变量的最或然值。
It is also called by any of the several terms, i.e. expectation, expected value, mean or average.
The mean is defined as
它也被称为以下的名称,即期望,期望值,平均值或平均。 平均值被定义为
Where xi is the observation, n is the sample size, or total number of observations in the sample, and x is the mean which is also called most probable value (MPV). The MPV is the closest approximation to the true value that can be easily achieved from a set of data.
It can be shown that the arithmetic mean of a set of independent observations is an unbiased estimate of the mean μ of the population.
xi观察量,n是样本量,或观测的样本总数,x平均也被称为最或然值(MPV)。 MPV是最接近真值的近似，这个值从一组数据可以很容易地获得。 它可以说明,一套独立观测数据的算术平均值是均值μ的无偏估计量。 Standard deviation is a numerical value indicating the amount of variation about
a central value.
In order to appreciate the concept upon which indices of precision devolve, one must consider a measure that takes into account all the values in a set of data.
Such a measure is the deviation from the meanxof each observed value xi. i.e. , (xi- x)and the mean of the squares of the deviations may be used, and this is called the variance σ2，It is
标准偏差是表示对中值的数量变化的值。
为了理解精度指标的概念,一个考虑一组数据中的所有值的测量值。
这样的一个值是每个观测值xi的平均值x的偏差。例如(xi- x)偏差平方的平均值被引用,这个值称为方差σ2,
where μ is the mean (expectation) of the population.
The square root of the variance (σ2) is called standard deviation (σ ). Theoretically the standard deviation, which is the value on the x axis of the probability curve that occurs at the points of inflexion of the curve, is obtained from an infinite number of variables known as the population.
In practice, however, only a sample of variables is available and S is used as an unbiased estimator.
其中μ是总体的平均值〔期望〕。 方差(σ2)的平方根称为标准偏差(σ)。
理论上标准偏差,它是概率曲线上的拐点在x轴上的坐标值，可以从一个包含无限个数据的总体中获得。
然而在实践中,只有一个样本变量是可用的，S作为一个无偏估计量。
Account is taken of the small number of variables in the sample by using (n-1) as the divisor, which is referred to in statistics as the Bessel correction, hence, variance is
考虑到样本中的一小部分变量，通过使用(n - 1)作为除数,在统计学中为贝塞
1n2尔修正,因此,方差就是sxix
n1i1To obtain an index of precision in the same unit as the original data, therefore the square root of the variance is used, and this is also called the standard deviation S.
The standard deviation is the measure of the dispersion or spread of the random variables.
为了在相同原始数据单元中获得精度指标,因此方差的平方根被引用,这也被称为标准偏差S。
标准差是衡量随机变量的分散度或传播。
A survey measurement, such as a distance or angle, after mistakes are eliminated and systematic errors corrected, is a random variable.
If a distance is measured 20 times, it is not unusual to get values for each of the measurements that differ slightly from its true value that is never known.
So owing to random variability, an error was defined as the difference between a random variable, the measured value (observation) and the constant, the true value.
2一项测量结果,如测量距离或角度,当消除系统误差并改正错误后,就是一个随机变量。
如果一段距离测量了20次,每次的测量结果与真值都会有轻微的偏差这是很正常的。
所以由于随机变化规律,一个误差被定义为随机变量之间的差值,包含测量值(观测值)和常数,真值。
And a correction ( residual ), which is the negative of the error in practice, was defined as correction between the MPV and the measured value, i.e. correction=MPV-measured value.
When the so-called true values are available to compare with calculated values,
1nthe mean square error (MSE) is given by MSExix
ni1改正数(残差),在实际中是误差的相反数，,被定义为最或然值和测量值之间的改正数,即改正数= MPV-测量值。
当所谓的真实值与计算值比较时,就给出了均方误(MSE)
in which xi is the measured value, x is the true value and n is the number of measurements.
xi是测量值,x是真值和n是测量的总数。
Propagation of errors: Much data in surveying is obtained indirectly from various combinations of observations. For instance the coordinates of a line are a function of its length and bearing.
As each measurement contains an error, it is necessary to consider the combined effect of these errors on the derived quantity.
Error propagation is one of the many aspects of analyzing errors. It is a mathematical process that is used to estimate the expected random error in a computed or indirectly measured quantity.
误差传播:测量中的大多数数据都是通过许多观测值的不同组合间接获得的。例如一条线的坐标是它的距离和方位的函数。
每个测量包含都包含误差,有必要考虑这些误差在导出量中的综合效应。 误差传播分析误差的一个方面。它是一个数学的过程,用于估计期望的随机误差或间接测量的计算量。
The general procedure is to differentiate with respect to each of the observed quantities in turn and sum them to obtain their total effect.
Thus if Z=f(x1,x2,…,xn), and each independent variable is changed by a small amount (an error) △x1， △x2,…, △xn, then Z will is changed by a small amount equal to △Z, then
它的一般过程是依次对每一个观察量惊醒区分和对他们总的影响求和。 因此如果Z = f(x1,x2,…,xn),并且每个独立变量被改正了一个小数量(误差)△x1,x2△,…,△xn,那么Z就改变了△Z,然后Zfffx1... x1x2xn2where
f is the partial derivative of Z with respect to x, etc. △ is used to xireplace the partial symbol d.
f是Z关于x的偏导数。△用来取代偏导数d。 xiAs the observations are considered independent and uncorrelated, the variance
f2f2f22x1x2...is thereforeZxn xxx12n222观测值被认为是独立的、不相关的,因此方差就是
which is the general equation for the variance of any function and called the rationale of error propagation.
This equation is very important and is used extensively in surveying for error analysis.
这是任何函数的方差的一般方程,称为误差传播的基本原理。 这个方程是非常重要的,广泛用于测量误差分析。 6.3 Least-squares adjustment最小二乘平差
Whenever the surveyor conducts a field survey, no matter how simple or
complex, he invariably makes more measurements than are absolutely necessary to locate the points in the survey.
A Line taped in two directions introduces one measurement more that is necessary to establish the length of the line.
Measuring all three angles of a triangle introduces one superfluous measurement. These extra measurements are termed redundant measurements.
只要测量员进行实地调查,不管多么简单或复杂,他总是比必要的测量次数多测几次以在测量中确定点的位置。
对一条线的两个方向引入多个测量,对建立线的长度是必要的。 测量所有三个三角形的角度引入了一个多余的测量。 这些额外的测量被称为多余观测。
Least-squares adjustment is a mathematical and statistical technique for dealing with the optimal combination of redundant measurements together with the estimation of unknown parameters.
The least-squares adjustment is rigorously based on the theory of mathematical probability, whereas in general, the other methods do not have this rigorous base.
In a least-squares adjustment, the following condition of mathematical
probability is enforced: The sum of the square of the errors times their respective weights are minimized.
最小二乘平差是处理冗余测量的最正确组合形式与未知参数估计的数学统计技术。
最小二乘平差严格基于数学概率理论,而在一般情况下,其他方法没有严格的数学基础。
在最小二乘平差中,数学概率的执行条件是:误差乘以它们各自的权重的平方
和是最小的。
In surveying, errors in measurements conform to the laws of probability, and they follow the normal distribution theory. Thus they should be adjusted in a manner that follows these mathematical laws.
A mathematical model for adjustment is composed of two parts: a functional model and a stochastic model.
在测量,测量误差符合概率法则,他们遵循正态分布理论。因此他们应该按照这些数学法则进行调整。
平差的数学模型由两部分组成:函数模型和统计模型。
A functional model describes the geometric or physical characteristics of the survey problem.
In adjustment computations a functional model is an equation that represents or defines an adjustment condition. It must either be known, or assumed.
函数模型描述了测量问题的几何和物理特征。
在平差计算中的函数模型是一个表示平差条件的方程。它必须是已知的,或假设的。
If the functional model represents the physical situation adequately, the
observation errors can be expected to conform to the normal distribution curves。
如果函数模型充分代表了测量的物理情况,测量误差将符合正态分布曲线。 For example, suppose that there are the shape of a plane triangle, all that is required for this operation is to measure two of its angles, and the shape of the triangle will be uniquely determined.
However, for safety’s sake, to measure all three angles, any attempt to construct such a triangle will immediately show inconsistencies among the three observed angles.
例如,假设有一个平面三角形,此操作所需的所有测量就是两个角度测量,三角形的形状将唯一确定。
然而,为了安全起见,测量了三个角度,那么任何试图构建这样的一个三角形将立刻显示出三个观察角度之间的不一致。
In this case the model simply is that the sum of the three angles must equal 180°. If three observations are used in this model, it is highly unlikely that the sum will equal exactly 180°.
在这种情况下,这个模型仅仅是三个角度之和必须等于180°。如果在这个模型中使用三个观测值,它们的总和是不可能等于180°的。
Therefore, when redundant observations or more observations than are
absolutely necessary, are acquired, these observations will rarely fit the model exactly.
Intuitively, this results from something characteristics to the observations and makes them inconsistent in the case of redundancy.
因此,当进行了冗余观测或是比必要的观测次数多的观测,这些观测值很少与模型相匹配。
凭直觉,只是由于观测值的一些特征导致的,在多余观测中使他们与模型不匹配。
Of course, It is first need to be sure of the adequacy of the model (it is a plane triangle and not spherical or spheroidal, for example).
Then it is needed to express the quality of the measurements before seeking to adjust the observations to fit the model.
So from above, a well-known mathematical model states that the sum of angles in a plane triangle is 180°.
This model is adequate if the survey is limited to a small region such as the plane survey.
当然,首先需要确定适当的模型(例如它是一个平面三角形而不是球状或球状)。
然后调整观测值使它适合观测模型之前应该确定观测值的质量。
所以从上面可知,一个著名的数学模型指出,平面三角形内角之和是180°。 这个模型是适合的,如果调查仅限于一个小地区,如平面测量。
The determination of variances, and subsequently the weights of the observations, are known as the stochastic model in a least-squares adjustment which describes the statistical properties of all the elements or represents a way to enter information about the precision of the observations involved in the functional model.
确定方差,随后确定观测值的权重,被称为最小二乘平差的随机模型，这个模型描述了所有元素的统计特性或者显示了函数模型里观测值的精度信息。
The importance of the stochastic model is often overlooked and undervalued. As a general rule, if the stochastic model contains misleading information, the adjustment and conclusions drawn from the adjustment can be unreliable.
随机模型的重要性经常被无视和低估。
作为一般规则,如果随机模型包含误导性信息,从平差中得出的结论可能是不可靠的。
The stochastic model is represented by the variance-covariance matrix (weighting matrix) of the observations.
It is crucial to the adjustment to select a proper stochastic (weighting) model since the weight of an observation controls the amount of correction it receives during the adjustment.
However, development of the stochastic model is important to the weighted adjustment.
When doing an unweighted adjustment, all observations are assumed to be of equal weight, and thus the stochastic model is created implicitly.
随机模型是由观测值的方差协因数矩阵(权重矩阵)表示的。
在平差中选择一个合适的随机(权重)模型是至关重要的，因为一个观测值的权重控制着它从平差中获得的改正量。
然而,随着权重的调整，随机模型的发展是很重要的。
在一个无权平差中,所有的观测值都被认为是等权的,从而创建的随机模型是隐含的。
There are two adjustment methods: conditional and parametric adjustments. In the conditional adjustment, geometric conditions are enforced, upon the observations and their residuals. So this method is called direct adjustment.
Examples of conditional adjustment are (1) the sum of angles in a polygon is (n-2)×180°, where n is the number of angles in the polygon.
(2) the sum of the angles in the horizon at any station equals 360°. 有两种平差方法:条件平差和参数平差。
在条件平差中,几何条件的运用是根据观测值和它们的残差确定的。因此,这种方法被称为直接平差。
条件调整的例子
(1)多边形内角之和(n-2)×180°,其中n是多边形的角度总数。 (2)任何测站的水平角度之和等于360°。
(3)In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the departures should equal the difference between the x coordinates at the beginning and the ending stations of the traverse, similarly, the algebraic sum of the latitudes should equal the difference between the y coordinates at the beginning and the ending stations of the traverse.
When performing a parametric adjustment, observations are expressed in items of unknown parameters that were never measured directly.
(3)在一个闭合导线中,所有经度的代数之和应该等于导线的起始站和终点站x坐标之间的差异,同样,纬度代数之和应该等于导线的起始站和终点站y坐标之间的差异。
当执行一个参数平差,观测值是由从来没有直接测量的未知参数来表示。 So the parametric adjustment is sometimes called indirection adjustment, in which the corrections are stated as functions of indirectly determined values of parameters of the measurements.
所以参数平差有时被称为间接平差,在这个平差中改正数被认为是间接测量的参数。
For example, the well-known coordinate equations are used to model the measured angles, direction and distances in a traverse.
The adjustment yields the most probable values for the adjusted observations to be computed.
A primary objective in an adjustment is to ensure that all observation used to find the most probable values for the unknowns in the model.
例如,著名的坐标方程用于测量角度、方向和导线中测量距离的模型。 平差输出被平差的观测值的最或然值用于计算。
平差的主要目标是确保所有用到的观测值为模型中的未知量找出最或然值。 In the least-squares adjustment, no matter conditional or parametric, the geometric checks at the end of the adjustment are satisfied and the same adjusted observations are obtained.
In complicated networks, it is often difficult and time consuming to write the equations to express all the conditions that must be met for a conditional adjustment.
Therefore parametric adjustment is becoming very popular, which generally leads to larger systems of equations but is straightforward in its development and solution and as a result, is well suited to computers.
在最小二乘平差中,无论条件平差还是参数平差,平差后的几何检核是符合条件的和相应的观测值得到调整。
在复杂的导线网中,写表达所有的条件必须满足的条件平差方程往往是困难和费时的。
因此参数平差变得非常流行,这通常会导致更多的方程,但公式列举很简单并
且便于计算,因此,非常适合电脑。
Chapter 7 Control surveying控制测量 7.1 Introduction简介
The purpose of the surveying is to locate the positions of points on or near the surface of the earth.
To determine horizontal positions of arbitrary points on the earth’s surface and elevation of points above or below a reference surface are known as a control survey.
The positions and elevations of the points make up a control network.
There are different types of control networks depending on where and why they are established.
测量的目的是确定地球外表或附近的点的位置。
为了确定地球外表任一点的水平位置和相对于参考面的高程的测量被称为控制测量。
点的位置和高度构成测量控制网。
根据控制网建立的地方和原因可以分为不同类型的控制网络。
A control network may have very accurate positions but no elevations (called a Horizontal Control Network) or very accurate elevations but no positions (called a Vertical Control Network).
Some points in a control network have both accurate positions and elevations. Control networks range from small, simple and inexpensive to large and complex and very expensive to establish.
控制网络可能有非常准确的位置,但没有高程(称为水平控制网)或有非常精确的高程,但没有点位信息称为垂直控制网络)。
控制网络中一些点有准确的位置和高度。
控制网络的范围从小型、简单且廉价的道大而复杂的和昂贵的。
A control network may cover a small area by using a ‘local’ coordinate system that the features are positioned in relation to another control network but their positions on the earth are not known, or cover a large area by consisting of a few precise-established control points, which is sometimes called the primary control.
Horizontal positions of points in a network can be obtained in different ways, i.e. triangulation, trilateration, intersection, resection, traversing, and GPS.
控制网络可以覆盖一个小区域通过使用一个“当地”坐标系统,它的点位信是由另一个找地球上的位置未知的控制网建立的,,或由一些基本控制点组成大区域控制网，它有时被称为初级控制。
可以以不同的方式获得控制网正点的水平位置,即三角测量、三边测量,前方交会,后方交会,导线测量和GPS。
7.2 Trigonometry 三角测量
Triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if one side and three angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed by the law of sines.
Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the direction of the remaining sides can be determined, and then coordinates of unknown points can be computed by application of trigonometry.
Since the advent of long-range EDM instrument, a method of surveying called
trilateration was adopted to combine with triangulation.
三角测量是基于三角命题,如果一个三角形的一条边和三个角已知,那么其余的边由正弦定律可以计算。
此外,如果一边的方向是已知的,其余的方向可以确定,然后未知点的坐标可由三角函数计算。
远程EDM仪器出现以来,称为三边测量的测量方法被改造并结合了三角测量方法。
The trilateration is based on the trigonometric proposition that if the three sides of a triangle are known, the three angles can be computed by the law of cosines.
Trilateration possesses some advantages over triangulation because the measurement of the distances with EDM instrument is so quick, precise and
economical while the measurement of the angles needed for triangulation may be more difficult and expensive.
For some precise projects, the combination of triangulation and trilateration which is called triangulateration is applied.
三边测量是基于三角命题,如果一个三角形的三条边是已知的,可以用余弦定理计算三个角度。
因为光电测距仪测距速度非常快、精度高、经济，所以三边测量具有一些优势，相反三角测量可能更加困难和昂贵。
对于一些精密工程项目,三角测量和三边测量的结合被称为边角测量的测量方法被应用。
7.3 Traversing导线测量
Definition: a survey traverse is a sequence of lengths and directions of lines between points on the earth, obtained by or from field angle and distance measurements and used in determining positions of the points.
定义:测量导线是地球上的点之间的长度和方向顺序排列,从野外测角量边，用来确定点位信息。
The angles are measured using transits, theodolites, or total stations, whereas the distances can be measured using steel tapes or EDM instruments.
A survey traverse may determine the relative positions of the points that it
connects in series, and if tied to control stations based on some coordinate system, the positions may be referred to the system.
From these computed relative positions, additional data can be measured for layout of new features, such as buildings and roads.
角度测量使用经纬仪,或全部仪,而距离测量使用钢带或者电子测距仪。 一条测量导线可能确定它所关联的一系列点儿相对位置,如果测量控制站是基于一些坐标系统的,控制站的位置可能参照这个系统。
从这些计算出的相对位置信息,测量获得的额外的数据可以放样新的构筑物,如建筑物和道路。
Applications: Since the advent of EDM equipment, traversing has emerged as the most popular method to establish control networks, such as basic area control, mapping, control of hydrographic surveys and construction project.
In engineering surveying, it is ideal way to surveys and dimensional control of route-type projects, such as highway, railroad, and pipeline construction.
Classifications: In general, traverse is always classified as either an open traverse or closed traverse
应用:由于电子测距仪的出现,导线测量已成为建立控制网最受欢迎的方法,如基本区域控制、地图、水文调查和建设项目的控制测量。
在工程测量,它是理想的方式来测量和空间控制贯穿类型的项目,如公路、铁路、管道施工。
分类:一般来说,导线总是分为支导线或闭合导线。
An open traverse originates either at a point of known horizontal position with respect to a horizontal datum or at an assumed horizontal position, and terminates at a station whose relative position is not previously known.
支导线起始于水平基准面上一个已知水平位置的点或在一个假定的水平位置,并终止于一个相对位置未知的测站。
The open traverse provides no check against mistakes and large errors for its termination at an unknown horizontal position and lack of geometric closure.
It means that there is no geometric verification possible with respect to the actual positioning of the traverse stations.
Thus, the measuring technique must be refined to provide for field verification. At a minimum, distances are measured twice and angles are doubled.
Open traverses are often used for preliminary survey for a road or railroad. 支导线没有提供检核错误的条件和终止在一个未知的水平位置点会出现较大错误和缺乏几何闭合。
这意味着没有可能对导线的实际定位点进行几何验证。
因此,必须细化测量技术以进行野外检核。至少,距离和角度测量都应该都翻了一倍两倍。
支导线通常用于公路或铁路的初步测量。 A closed traverse can be described in two ways:
(1) A closed loop traverse, forms a continuous loop, enclosing an area, and starts at assumed horizontal position or at a known horizontal position with respect to a horizontal datum and ends at the same point. 闭合导线可以从两个方面:描述
(1)导线闭合环,形成一个连续环,封闭的区域,并起始于假定的水平位置或水平基准面上的一个已知点并在相同的点结束。
(2) A connecting traverse starts and ends at separate points , whose relative positions have been determined by a survey of equal or higher order accuracy.
(2)一个附和导线在单独的点开始和结束,其相对位置由同等精度或更高精度的测量决定。
Closed traverses, whether they return to the starting point or not, provide checks on the measured angles and distances.
闭合导线,无论他们是否回到起点,都能提供测量角度和距离的检核。 In both cases, the angles can be closed geometrically, and the position closure can be determined mathematically.
Therefore they are more desirable and used extensively in control, construction, property, and topographic surveys.
在这两种情况下,可以角度可以几何闭合和位置可以数学闭合。
因此他们更可取,在控制、建筑、房地产、和地形调查中广泛应用。 Angular closure: For example, the geometric sum of the interior angles in an n-side closed figure should be ( n – 2 )×180°, but due to systematic and random errors of the measurements, when all the interior angles of a closed traverse are summed, they may or may not total the number of degrees required for geometric closure.
The difference between the geometric sum and actual field sum of the interior angles is called angular closure.
角度闭合:例如,n边形的内角总和应该为(n - 2)×180°,但由于测量值中系统误差和随机误差的出现,当导线内部所有内部角就可以求和,这个总和可能或不可能满足几何闭合的角度。
几何闭合角度与实际野外测角的角度总和之差称为角度闭合差。
The total error of angular closure should be distributed evenly to each angle (if all angles were measured with the same precision) before mathematical analysis of the traverse.
The important point before doing this is that the overall angular closure can’t be beyond the survey specifications.
Position closure: The position closure can be determined mathematically, theoretically this position closure from the origin back to itself should be zero.fxxxendxstartfyyyendystart
角度闭合的总误差应该在对导线进行数学分析前分配到每个角(如果角度具有相同的测量精度)。
做这些之前最重要的一点就是忽略的角度闭合差不能超过测量标准。
点位闭合:点位闭合可以有数学决定,理论上从起始点回到它本身的点位闭合差应该为0.
But the errors in the measured distances and angles tend to alter the shape of the traverse, therefore the algebraic sum of the latitudes and the algebraic sum of the departures should be calculated, and then compared with the fixed latitude and departure of a straight line from the origin to the closing point.
但测量距离和角度的误差可能会改变导线的形状,因此纬度的代数和与纬度的代数和的偏差应该被计算,然后将其与固定点的纬度比较，一条直线从起始点到闭合点的偏差就可以得到。
The position is defined by its X coordinate and its Y coordinates with respect to a plane rectangular coordinate system in which the X axis is assumed north-south whereas the Y axis east-west.
点的位置是有平面直角坐标系中它的X坐标和Y坐标来定义的，并且平面直角坐标系的X轴是南北方向而Y轴是东西方向。
By definition, latitude here is the north/south rectangular component of a line and departure is the east/west rectangular component of a line.
根据定义,北/南纬度线在这里是指平面直角坐标系的一条组成直线和东/西经度线在这里是指平面直角坐标系的另一条组成直线。
To differentiate direction, north is considered plus, whereas south is considered minus. Similarly, east is considered plus , whereas west is considered minus.
为了区分方向,北面试正的,而南面被认为是负的。同样,东方正的,而西方被认
为是负的。
Then the discrepancy should be adjusted by apportioning the closure both in latitudes and in departures on a reasonable basis.
The adjusted position of each traverse point is determined with respect to the origin.
那么经度和纬度之间的差异需要在一个合理的基础上将闭合差分配。 每一个导线点的改正点位应对照起始点进行。 Chapter 8 Engineering surveying工程测量
8.1 Modern Surveying Equipments 现代测量仪器 1. Total Station全站仪
For many years, the optical transit was the surveyor’s tool of choice to measure angles.
By the 1970s, however, the electronic theodolite began to replace the transit since it could measure angles more accurately on both the horizontal and vertical axes.
In the early 1980s, total stations, [ which measure distances very accurately by using electronic distance meters (EDMs) ], became the instrument of choice.
Then in late 1990, Geodimeter, Dandryd Sweden introduced the first ‘robotic total station’ adding automatic tracking and radio communication to a radio and data collector at the target or pole.
多年来,光学经纬仪是测量员选来测量角度的仪器。
然而,到了20世纪70年代,电子经纬仪开始取代经纬仪,因为它可以沿着水平轴和竖直轴更加准确的测量角度。
在20世纪80年代初,全站仪,(使用电子测距仪测量距离可以更加准确],成为被选择的仪器。
然后在20世纪90年代末,,Dandryd瑞典推出了第一个“智能全站仪”该全站仪添加了自动跟踪和无线电广播通信设备和从目标获取数据的数据采集器。
A total station is the most commonly used instrument now in survey engineering, which is fully integrated instrument that captures all the spatial data necessary for three-dimensional positional information.
A total station integrates the functions of [an electronic theodolite for measuring angles], [an EDM for measuring distances], [digital data] and [a data recorder].
All total stations have similar constructing features, and all perform basically the same functions.
全站仪是现在最常用的仪器工程测量仪器,它完全集成捕捉所需的所有空间三维位置信息数据的功能。
全站仪集成了电子经纬仪测量角度和EDM测量距离,数字化数据和数据采集器的功能。
所有的全站仪有相似的构造特征,执行基本相同的功能。
After the instrument has been set up on a control station, centered, leveled and properly oriented, and the prism target has been set up over another point whose position is to be measured, the surveyor may focus the target and depress a button.
Then output from the horizontal and vertical circular encoders and from the EDM can be displayed at the instrument and stored in a data collector and enters into
a built-in microprocessor.
The microprocessor can convert the measured slope distance to the horizontal distance using the measured vertical or zenith angle.
仪器安置在控制点后，对中、整平、定向后，将棱镜放置在待测点，测量员瞄准目标然后按下按钮即可。
然后结果从水平和竖直圆形解码器中输出，EDM测量的距离可以显示在仪表上和数据存储在数据采集器中，并放入内在的微处理器。
微处理器可以将测量的斜距转化为水平距离，通过使用测量垂直或水平距离天顶角。
The microprocessor also computes the difference in elevation between the instrument center and the prism target.
If the elevation of the instrument center (HI) and the height of the reflector target (HT) above the ground are entered, the microprocessor computes the elevation of the target station taking into account the effect of curvature and refraction.
Furthermore the microprocessor can also compute the resolution of the
horizontal distance together with current horizontal direction, expressed as an azimuth, into the coordinates of the target station.
微处理器也可以计算仪器中心和棱镜的目标之间的高差。
如果仪器中心的高度(HI)和反射器的高度离地面目标(HT)被输入,微处理器在考虑曲率效应和折射效应的情况下计算目标测站的高程。
此外微处理器也可以一起计算水平距离的解决当前的水平方向,表示为一个方位,到目标站的坐标。
In construction layout measurement, the data necessary to establish of the direction and distance from a control point [to locate a construction point] can be entered into the instrument via the keyboard or directly from an office computer. Then the surveyor guides the person holding the prism along the line of computed direction until the distance to the point to be located agrees with the computed distance.
All displayed outputs can also be recorded or stored in electronic field book for further calculations in a computer.
在施工放样测量中,控制点的方向和距离(定位控制点)可以通过键盘输入到仪器或直接从一个办公室的电脑输入到仪器。
然后测量员指导持镜员沿着导线计算方向知道被放样点的距离与所需计算的距离拟合。
所有的显示的输出结果也可以记录或存储在电子记录手簿上留着将来在电脑上计算使用。
2. Gyro-theodolite陀螺经纬仪
A gyro-theodolite is a surveying instrument composed of a gyroscope mounted to a theodolite. It is used to determine the orientation of true north by locating the meridian direction.
It is the main instrument for orientation in mine surveying and in tunnel engineering, where astronomical stars are not visible.
The gyroscope has been used in navigation as a north-seeking device for a
considerable period of time and certain manufacturers of surveying instruments are
now producing units which allow the direct establishment of the meridian by theodolite without the need for calculations based on astronomical observations. 陀螺经纬仪是陀螺仪和经纬仪组成的仪器。它通过定位子午线方向来确定真北方向。
在天文星是不可见的矿山测量和隧道测量中，它是用来定向的主要仪器。
陀螺仪在相当长的一段时间内用作在导航中寻找北方向。一些测量仪器的生产商正在生产允许在不计算天文观测数据的情况下确定子午线方向的的组件。
A gyroscope is connected by a spindle to the vertical axis of the theodolite.
The battery-powered gyro wheel is rotated at 20,000 rpm (revolutions per minute) or more, until it acts as a north-seeking gyroscope.
A separate optical system within the attachment permits the operator to rotate the theodolite and thereby bring a zero mark on the attachment into coincidence with the gyroscope spin axis.
By tracking the spin axis as it oscillates about the meridian, a record of the azimuth of a series of the extreme stationary points of that oscillation may be determined by reading the theodolite azimuth circle.
陀螺仪是由主轴的垂直轴连接到经纬仪的。
陀螺仪的电动旋转齿轮转速为20000 rpm(转/分钟)或更多,直到它充当寻找北方向的陀螺仪。
内部的一个独立的光学系统允许操作员旋转经纬仪,将其设置为0从而使其与陀螺旋转轴重合。
通过跟踪垂直轴绕着子午线振动轨迹,一系列静止不动的方位角被记录，振动方向可以决定经纬仪角度刻盘的读数。
A gyro-theodolite can be operated at the surface and then again at the foot of the shafts to identify the directions needed to tunnel between the base of the two shafts.
Gyro-theodolites are primarily used in the absence of astronomical star sights. For example, during the construction of the Channel Tunnel, which runs under the English Channel from France to the UK, gyro-theodolites were used to prevent and correct the tunnels from curving.
陀螺经纬仪可以在外表操作,然后在两个基本轴之间可以确定隧道所需要的角度。
陀螺经纬仪主要在观测不到天文星的地方使用。
例如,在从法国到英国英吉利海峡隧道建设中,陀螺经纬仪被用来阻止和纠正隧道弯曲。
8.2 Construction layout施工放样
Engineering surveys are conducted to obtain data essential for planning, estimating, locating, and layout for the various phases of constructions.
After the necessary topographic maps are prepared and positions of the
structures are established as well as the final plans for the project are available, the engineers, architects or building contractors need to know information about overall site grade and elevations to determine placement of site structures, or estimate the volume of dirt to be moved, and then to set the required horizontal and vertical positions for the structures.
工程测量是在规划、评估、定位和建筑工程各阶段的施工放样过程中获取必
要数据的测量。
当工程项目最终确定计划时，必要的地形图和点位结构信息需要准备好,工程师,建筑师和建筑承包商需要知道控制网的整体信息和决定建筑结构位置的高程信息,或估算需要移动的土方量,然后设置建筑物的水平和竖直点信息。
Construction survey is the translation of construction plans into physical points on the ground that can be used as a basis for the actual construction. It is also called ‘construction layout’ or ‘layout work’.
Obviously construction surveying is the inverse activities associated with the gathering of data regarding real points and positions on the ground and representing those positions on a map.
The surveyor performing construction surveying is taking a ‘map’ representing proposed structures and placing the information on the ground.
施工测量是建筑工程计划转化为成地面上可以作为实际建筑基础的点。它也被称为“施工放样或“放样”。
显然施工测量是将收集的点看做真实的点，并将地面上的点在地图上标明的相反过程
测量员进行施工测量是采取“地图”将提出的结构和点位信息放样在实地上。 The surveyor is literally involved from start to finish of a construction project. The results of construction surveying are seen in almost any urban, suburban, and even rural setting.
Almost any roadway, building, or other man-made structure probably had some amount of construction surveying involved.
Construction surveying provides not only the horizontal location of new
man-made structures, but also the vertical information required to ensure that surfaces drain or pipes flow as required.
测量员参与工程项目的始终。施工测量的结果出现在几乎所有的城市,郊区甚至农村。
几乎所有的道路、建筑、或其他人造结构都可能涉及的施工测量。
施工测量不仅提供了新的人造结构的水平位置,确保外表排水或管道流动的竖直信息也被提供。
8.2.1 Establishing control points建立控制点
The first on-site job for the construction surveyor is to relocate the horizontal and vertical control used in the preliminary survey.
Depending on the size and complexity of the project as well as the precision requirements, it may be necessary to reestablish the horizontal and vertical control in areas of proposed construction.
For example, the construction surveyor will establish one or more benchmarks in the general vicinity of the project.
施工测量员的首要任务是将定位水平和垂直控制的点用于初步调查。 根据项目的规模和复杂性以及精度的要求,在建设地区可能需要重建水平和垂直控制网。
例如,建筑测量师将在项目的邻近区域建立一个或多个基准点。
These benchmarks are placed away from the immediate vicinity of the buildings so they will not be destroyed by the construction operations, and are used to provide
vertical control for the project.
Once these are set, the surveyor will then establish a good many less permanent but more accessible benchmarks quite close to the project.
The location of these less permanent points should be carefully selected so that turning points will ideally not be needed when elevations have to be set at the project.
Such carefully selection of the points may result in time saving which is so important on construction project.
这些基准点的放置远离附近的建筑物，所以他们不会被施工操作毁坏,并且也用于提供垂直控制的项目。
一旦这些被设置,测量员将建立许多不永久,但更容易接近基准单的项目。 这些临时点的位置应该精心挑选,以便于转折点在不需要设置高程的项目中是理想的点。
如此精心选择的点可能会导致节省时间，这在建设项目中是非常重要的。 8.2.2 Construction layout施工放样
To place the various parts of the structure at the desired elevation, the
construction surveyor will establish the reference lines or base lines before the actual layout measurements begins.
For large construction projects, the usual procedure is to set a main base line down the centerline of the structure. The monuments are set along the centerline at each end beyond the area of the construction work.
The monuments along the ends of the line may be occupied by the surveyor and will enable him to check and reset points within the construction areas.
将结构的各个部分所需的高度放样,建筑测量师将建立参考线或基础线路在实际放样测量开始之前。
对于大型建设项目,通常的过程主要是设置一个沿着建筑中心线的主要基准线。沿中心线末尾两端的标石放样在建设工作区。
在导线的末端的标石可能被测量员使用并且可以保证测量员用于检核并在建筑区域重新设置点位。
The stakes and points set during the process of construction surveying are not usually set at the actual construction point, but on some sort of offset, so that the survey stake is not disturbed by excavation or other activities that will take place at actual point of construction.
The stakes are marked with an ‘offset’ and a ‘grade’, which provides the construction crew with the special relationship of the construction stake to the actual point of construction.
The ‘offset’ is the distance from the survey stake to the horizontal position of the actual point of construction, and will typically be three feet for curb and gutter or ten feet for underground pipes.
在施工测量过程中放样的标桩和点位通常没有放样在实际建设点,而是放样在稍微偏离的点,所以测量标桩不能被挖掘或在其他施工建筑点被取代。
标桩是标有“位移”和“等级”的,它给测量队提供了实际点与测量标桩之间特定的关系。
“位移”是测量标桩到实际建筑点的水平距离,通常远离地下管道和排水沟三英尺或远离地下管道十英尺。
8.2.3 techniques of layout放样技术 1. Elevation layout高程放样
Layout of known elevation is that designed elevations are set out on the site by using the method of leveling, according to the benchmarks.
放样已知高程是依照基准点通过水准测量将设计的高程放样在实地上。 The designed height of a building’s floor is H±0, near by, there is a benchmark (BM), and its elevation is HBM.
The designed height of a building’s floor is arranged to stake A as the basis of the elevation control during construction.
If the foresight rod reading is a, then the backsight rod is moved up and down to the reading b, which can be obtained by the following equation,
大楼地板的设计高度为H±0,近似的,基准点的高程是HBM。
建筑物地板的设计高程放置在标桩A，并将其作为高程控制的基本点。 如果前尺的读数是a,上下移动后视尺记录读数为b,可以得到以下方程, 2. Horizontal position layout水平位置放样
Horizontal position layouts include rectangular coordinate method, polar coordinate method, free station, etc.
水平位置放样方法包含直角坐标法、极坐标法和自由测站法 (1) Rectangular coordinate method直角坐标法
Rectangular coordinate method, based on the Cartesian coordinate principle, is referred to setting out horizontal position by using coordinate difference.
直角坐标法,它基于笛卡儿坐标原则,是运用不同的坐标放样水平位置。 It is applicable to the construction control network of a grid or a baseline form, and distance measurements can be conveniently operated on the construction site.
它可以应用于带有基线或者坐标格网的建筑控制网。在施工区域，距离测量将很方便的被操作。
(2) Polar coordinate method极坐标法
The polar coordinate method is referred to setting out horizontal position by using horizontal angles and horizontal distances.
It is applicable to this case that points to be set out are close to the control points nearby, and distance measurements can be conveniently operated on the construction site.
极坐标法是用水平角度和水平距离放样水平点位。
他通常用于待用放样点距离控制点较近的情况。在施工区域，距离测量将很方便的被操作。
(3) Free station自由测站法
A very popular technique called free station permits the surveyor to set up the Total Station at any convenient position and then to determine the coordinates and elevation of that instrument position by sighting previously coordinated reference stations.
In construction layout measurement, the data necessary to establish the direction and distance from a control point to locate a construction point can be entered into the instrument via the keyboard or directly from an office computer.
Then the surveyor guides the person holding the prism along the line of
computed direction until the distance to the point to be located agrees with the computed distance.
自由测站法是一种非常受欢迎的技术，这个技术允许测量员在任何方便的位置设置全站仪,为了确定仪器站的坐标和高程通过瞄准前方的坐标参考站。
在工程放样测量中,数据必须建立控制点的方向和距离来定位一个建筑点可以通过键盘输入到仪器或直接从一个办公室的电脑。
然后土地测量员指导人的棱镜的方向,直到距离计算点位于同意计算距离。 After the Total Station instrument has been set up over the position P (a control point) and properly oriented, angles or azimuths from the control point and distances to each layout point may be indicated.
全站仪仪器后建立的P(控制点)和面向正确的位置、角度或技术从控制角度和距离的布局点可能表示。
Now many Total Stations have such functions that the coordinates and elevations of the layout points may be uploaded into the Total Station, the instrument’s display shows the left/right, forward/back, and up/down movements needed to place the prism in each of the desired positions.
现在许多总有这样坐标和功能海拔的布局点全站仪上传,仪表的显示了左/右,前进/后退,向上/向下运动所需要的地方每个人所需的棱镜的位置。 8.2.4 As-built surveys 竣工调查
Surveys are crucial in the construction from the planning stage to the actual construction and future maintenance . A construction project begins with a site plan or plot plan,laying out the plan for the project from beginning to end.When the construction surveying has been completed, a final survey is performed.
调查至关重要的建筑从规划阶段到实际建设和未来的维护。建设项目始于一个网站计划或阴谋计划,制定项目的计划从头到尾。当施工测量已经完成,最后一个调查。
The final survey includes cross sections and locations that are used for final payments to the contractor and for the completion of an as-built drawing.
最后调查包括横截面和位置,用于最终支付给承包商和竣工图纸的完成。 These are the as-built surveys and their components (water line, sewer, etc ),which will be needed for future maintenance, changes, and new construction.
这些竣工调查及其组件(水线、下水道等),为未来的维护,需要更改,新的建设。 As-built surveys are conducted several times throughout the duration of a construction project. Their frequency and the number of surveys undertaken depend on the scope of the construction project.
竣工调查进行了几次在整个建设项目的持续时间。他们的频率和数量的调查进行取决于建设项目的范围。
The purpose of as-built surveys is to verify that the construction work has been completed according to the specifications set during the planning stage and shown in the site plan.
竣工调查的目的是验证建设工作已经完成根据标准所示设置在规划阶段和该网站计划。
The as-built surveys are most often used to show the building inspector that a project under construction is conforming to zoning regulations.
竣工调查通常用于显示项目在建的建筑检查员符合分区法规。
As-built surveys may be required for nearly every type of land project, from roads and trails to utility improvements and building constructions.
竣工调查可能需要为几乎每一个类型的土地项目,从道路和小径效用和建筑结构的改进。
As-built surveys can show exactly what have been completed to date, and used as useful tools in adjusting the schedule of a large construction project.
竣工调查可以显示已经完成迄今为止,作为有用的工具调整的安排大型建筑项目。
As-built surveys can also provide important tools to manage the building as it is under construction and after it has been completed.
竣工调查还可以提供重要的工具来管理建设,因为它正在建设中,它已经完成。 As such, as-built surveys may be requested by the project supervisors or others who invested in the completion of this project.
因此,可能会被要求提供竣工调查项目主管或其他投资这个项目的完成。
As-built surveys may be used to document what has been completed to a specific date. For example, they are often used to verify the floor plan and evacuation plans, utility and cabling plans, or other subsequent steps in the building process.
竣工调查可用于文档已经完成一个特定的日期什么。例如,他们通常用于验证平面图和撤离计划,公用事业和布线计划,或其他建设过程中的后续步骤。
As-built surveys often provide three-dimensional, rather than flat maps.Within the field of as-built surveys, there are several survey types undertaken for very specific purposes.
竣工调查经常提供三维的,而不是平面的地图。领域内的竣工调查,有几个调查类型进行非常具体的目的。
For example, a foundation surveying ensures that the foundation is constructed in the right location on the plot of land, and has been built in the manner outlined in the site plan.
例如,基础测量确保基础建立在正确的位置的土地,并已建成的网站计划中概述的方式。
Once the project is under construction or after it has been finished, a deformation surveying will be carried out to determine whether the shape of the structure is changing or whether the parts of the structure are moving over time by creating three-dimensional graphs of the structure at two different points in time.
一旦项目正在建设或已完成后,将进行变形测量,以确定结构的形状是否改变或者部分的结构是否正随着时间的推移,通过创建的三维图形结构在两个不同的时间点。
8.3 Deformation Monitoring 变形监测
Deformation refers to the changes of a deformable body ( natural or man-made objects ) undergoes in its shapes, dimension and position in space and time domain. Due to factors such as changes of ground water level, tidal phenomena, tectonic phenomena, etc, engineering structures such as dams, bridges, high buildings, etc, are subject to deformation.
Deformation of engineering structures is often measured in order to ensure that
the structure is exhibiting a safety both during and after constructions.
As a result, the design, execution and analysis of such surveys are a matter of considerable practical importance.
变形是指身体变形的变化(自然或人为对象)经历的形状、尺寸和位置在空间和时间域。
由于地下水位变化等因素,潮汐现象,构造现象,等工程结构,如大坝、桥梁、高层建筑等 变形。
工程结构变形通常是测量以确保结构表现出前、中、后的安全结构。 结果,设计,执行和分析这样的调查是一个相当大的实际意义。
Potentially-deformation-sensitivity engineering and construction projects and growing geo-scientific interest in the study of crustal movement have all combined to increase awareness of the need for a comprehensively-integrated approach to design and analyze such deformation surveys. Therefore it is important to measure these movements for the purpose of safety assessment and preventing any disaster in the future.
Deformation monitoring of natural and man-made structures is an engineering survey activity during which repeated observations are made within a specified time frame for the purpose of detecting and quantifying movements of structures.
Potentially-deformation-sensitivity工程和建设项目和增长geo-scientific兴趣研究地壳运动都增加意识的必要性comprehensively-integrated相结合的方法来设计和分析这种变形调查。因此衡量这些运动是很重要的安全评估和预防为目的的任何未来的灾难。
自然和人造结构变形监测是工程测量的活动期间,重复观察是在指定的时间框架为目的的检测和定量的运动结构。
Such monitoring could be of a routine nature, or be made necessary under an abnormal condition. Under ordinary circumstances, the interval of time between monitoring and analysis may extend over several days or more. Under critical conditions, this may have to be nearly instantaneous in order to provide a warning. The volume of data may consist of only several items in the simplest routine investigation or of hundreds or thousands of different data in very complex or critical conditions. The rate of monitoring may be annually, monthly, weekly, daily, hourly, or even more frequently. Detecting and quantifying movements require the use of very precise equipments.
监控可以常规性质的,或在异常条件下是必要的。在普通情况下,监控和分析之间的间隔时间可能延长数天或更多。在关键情况下,这可能是几乎瞬时为了提供一个警告。的数据量可能只包含几项最简单的常规调查或数百或数千个不同的数据非常复杂或重要条件。监控可能每年,每月、每周、每天、每小时、甚至更频繁。检测和量化运动需要使用非常精确的设备。
These movements are very small, so accurately measuring them requires meticulous fieldwork as well as rigorous analysis of observed data.
这些运动非常小,所以准确地测量它们需要细致的实地考察以及严格的观测数据的分析。
8.3.1 Deformation parameters 变性参数
The main purpose for monitoring and analyzing of structural deformations is to check whether the behaviors of the investigated structures (or objects) and their environment follow the predicted pattern, so that any unpredicted deformations could be detected at an early stage in the case of abnormal behaviors, and the actual deformation status could be described as accurately as possible to determine the causative factors which trigger the deformations.
结构变形监测和分析的主要目的是检查是否调查结构(或对象)的行为和他们的环境预测模式,因此,任何不可预测变形可以在早期阶段发现的异常行为,和实际变形状态可以尽可能准确地描述确定致病因素引起变形。 1. Absolute displacements 绝对位移
Displacements of monumented points represent the behaviors of the structure, and its foundation and abutments, with respect to a stable framework of points established by an external reference network.
位移的标尺点代表结构的行为,及其基础和无缝线路,对于一个稳定的框架分网络建立的外部引用。
(1) Horizontal displacements 水平位移
Two-dimensional displacements are measured in a critical direction, usually perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the structure, at the important points, using conventional geodetic methods.
二维位移测量的一个重要的方向,通常是垂直于纵轴的结构,重要的点,使用常规大地测量方法。
Alignment techniques for alignment-offset measurements are made in relation to a pair of control points with known coordinates. Horizontal movement can also be determined with respect to plumb lines having stable anchor points.
对齐alignment-offset测量技术是与一对控制点与已知坐标。水平运动也可以决定对垂直线条有稳定的锚点。
(2) Vertical displacements 垂直位移
Vertical displacements are measured in relation to stable project benchmarks (such as deeply anchored vertical borehole extensometers) or alternatively in relation to deep benchmarks located near the structure, by using geodetic methods (differential leveling).
Settlement gauges are used to detect settlements of the foundation, or of interior structural parts which are not readily accessible.
垂直位移测量与稳定项目基准(如深锚定垂直钻孔extensometers)或者与深度基准附近的结构、利用大地测量方法(微分水准)。
结算仪表是用来检测基金会的定居点,或内部结构部分不容易访问。 2. Relative displacements 相对位移
These measurements are intended to determine small differential movements of points representative of the behaviors of the structure including its foundation and abutments with respect to other points on the structure.
这些测量的目的是确定微分动作小点代表行为的结构包括基础和无缝线路与其他点结构。
(1) Deflections 变形量
Relative deflections (inclinations) of a structure are measured by direct plumb lines.
Alignment survey techniques are used in the interior parts of the structure to determine the relative movements between adjacent parts with respect to a horizontal reference line set along the longitudinal axis of the structure. Foundation subsidence and tilts are measured by geodetic leveling, hydrostatic leveling, and tiltmeters. 结构的相对变形量(倾向)来衡量直接铅锤线。线测量技术用于室内的部分结构来确定相邻部件之间的相对运动对一组水平参考线沿纵轴结构。基金会的沉降和倾斜以大地水准来衡量,流体静力水准,tiltmeters。 (2) Extensions 扩展量
Combinations of geodetic leveling with suspended invar wires equipped with short reading scales at different levels of the structure and connected to borehole extensometers can supply information on the relative vertical movements as well as on the absolute vertical displacements and relative tilts.
大地水准的组合与悬浮不胀钢线配备短阅读尺度在不同层次的结构和连接到钻孔extensometers能供应信息相对垂直运动以及绝对垂直位移和相对倾斜。 Extensometers have become important instruments for measuring differential foundation movements. Strain gauges are embedded in the concrete during construction, installed on the faces of the structure after completion, or embedded in foundation boreholes. Cracks are measured by the same methods with the instruments being installed on the surface.
Extensometers已经成为重要的工具测量微分运动基础。应变仪嵌在混凝土施工,安装在结构完成后的脸,或嵌入在水井基础。裂缝是相同测量方法与仪器被安装在外表。
8.3.2 Monitoring schemes 监测方案
1. Data flow of deformation monitoring 变形监测的数据流
Each monitored structure should have a technical design for surveying scheme to document the monitoring plan and its intended performance.
每个监测结构应该测量方案的技术设计文档监测计划和其预期的性能。
A deformation survey requires the assessment of project expectations. This would include accuracy statement in order to detect the movement and external effects of the object suspected of movement. The observation period and frequency must also be Established. The selection of most appropriate technique for any particular application will depend on cost, accuracy, and scale of the survey involved. Therefore several aspects related to the optimal design of the networks, measurement and analysis techniques suited to the monitoring surveys have to be considered. 变形调查需要评估项目预期。这将包括准确性声明为了检测对象的运动和外部影响运动的嫌疑。观察期和频率也必须
建立。选择最合适的技术对于任何特定的应用程序将取决于成本、准确性、和规模的调查。因此几个方面相关网络的优化设计,测量和分析技术适合监测调查必须被考虑。
The design of monitoring scheme not only should satisfy the best geometrical strength of the network but also should primarily fulfill the needs of subsequent physical interpretation of the monitoring results. Selection of monitoring techniques depends heavily on the type, the magnitude and the rate of the deformation. Therefore, the proposed measuring scheme should be based on the best possible combination of
all available measuring instruments.
监测方案的设计不但要满足网络的最正确几何强度也应该主要是满足需求的后续监测结果的物理解释。监测技术在很大程度上依赖于类型的选择、强度和变形。因此,提出测量方案应基于所有可用的测量仪器的最正确组合。 2. Monitoring scheme design 监测方案设计
Although accuracy and sensitivity criteria may differ considerably between various monitoring applications, the basic principles of the design of monitoring schemes and their geometrical analysis remain the same.
虽然准确性和灵敏度标准可能不同监视应用程序之间的差异很大,监测方案的设计的基本原则及其几何分析是相同的。 (1) Survey system design 测量系统设计
The design of the scheme required to undertake the deformation survey must consider the instruments to be used, the geometry of the network, the location of observation points, the types of observations, reanalysis of possibly environmental influences, frequency of observations and the expected forms of deformations. The reference datum must be appropriate, secure, and stable and not influenced by suspected or anticipated movement within the local site area. The plan contains drawings, product specifications, and other documents that completely describe the proposed instrumentation, and methods for fabrication, testing, installation, and protection and maintenance of instruments and monuments.
方案的设计要求进行变形测量必须考虑要使用的工具,网络的几何,观察点的位置,观察的类型,再分析可能的环境影响,频率的观测和预期的变形形式。参考基准面必须合适,安全,稳定,不会受到疑心和预期的运动在当地的站点区域。该计划包含图纸,产品规格,和其他文件,完整地描述该仪器,和方法制造、测试、安装和保护和维护工具和纪念碑。
The design of the survey measurement scheme should include analysis and specifications for predicted performance of the structure, measurement accuracy requirements, number and types of measurements, selection of instrument type and precision, data collection and field procedures, data reduction and processing procedures, data analysis and modeling procedures, etc.
The execution process that runs a designed network into reality should be carefully done, which deals with both the documentation of the proposed network stations, the actual field measurement techniques and the equipments that must be appropriately adjusted or calibrated.
调查测量的设计方案应包括分析和标准结构的预测性能,测量精度要求,数量和类型的测量,选择仪器的类型和精度,数据收集和实地程序、数据简化和处理程序,数据分析和建模过程,等等。
执行过程,设计网络变成现实应该仔细完成,处理的文档提出的网络电台,实际的现场测量技术和设备,必须适当调整或校准。 (2) Data collection 数据采集
The data collection required on a project survey is specifically prescribed by the results of network pre-analysis.The data collection scheme must provide both accuracy and reliability to ensure acceptance of the raw data.
The required accuracy for monitoring surveys is achieved based on instrument
performance and observing procedures. Minimum instrument resolution, data collection options, and proper operating instructions are determined from manufacturer specifications.
The actual data collection is executed according to the results of network pre-analysis so that the quality of the results can be verified during data processing and post-analysis of the network adjustment. Reliability in the raw measurements requires a system of redundant measurements, sufficient geometric closure, and strength in the network configuration.
所需的数据收集在一个项目中专门规定的调查结果的网络pre-analysis.The数据收集方案必须提供原始数据的准确性和可靠性,确保验收。 监测调查所需的精度是实现基于仪器性能和观察程序。最低仪器分辨率、数据收集选项,决心从制造商标准正确的操作指令。
实际执行数据收集结果显示网络系统论,这样的质量结果可以验证在数据处理和网络调整。可靠性的post-analysis原始测量需要一个系统的冗余测量,足够的几何关闭,在网络配置和力量。 (3) Data processing 数据处理
Data processing here is referred to the management and analysis of the collected geodetic data and their quality assurance that must be followed to confirm the expected results.
Raw survey data must be converted (through data reductions) into meaningful engineering values during the data processing stage.
Procedures for data reductions should be based on the most rigorous formulas and data processing techniques available.
These procedures are applied consistently to each monitoring survey to ensure comparable results.
Network adjustment software based on least squares techniques is strongly recommended for data processing.
数据处理是指收集大地的管理和分析数据和他们的质量保证,必须遵循确认预期的结果。
原始调查数据必须(通过降低数据)转换为有意义的工程值在数据处理阶段。 程序数据减少应该基于可用的最严格的公式和数据处理技术。 这些程序对每个监测调查以确保类似的结果。
网络调整软件基于最小二乘技术强烈建议进行数据处理。
Least squares adjustment techniques are used to compute the coordinates and survey accuracy for each point in the monitoring network. Network adjustment processing can also used to identify measurement blunders by statistically testing the observation residuals.
最小二乘法平差技术用于计算每个点的坐标和测量准确性的监控网络。网络调整处理也可以用来识别测量观测残差统计错误的测试。 (4) Data analysis 数据分析
The deformation observations should be repeated in order to obtain a mean and an estimate of its standard deviation, and then the mean would be compared with the predicted value as a check on consistency.
Each movement vector has magnitude and direction expressed as point
displacement coordinate differences.
Collectively, these vectors describe the displacement field over a given time interval.
变形观测应重复为了获得平均值和标准偏差的估计,然后将比预计的平均值作为检查的一致性。
每个运动矢量表示为点位移大小和方向坐标的差异。 总的来说,这些向量描述位移场在给定的时间间隔。
Displacements that exceed the amount of movement expected under normal operating conditions will indicate possible abnormal behaviors. Geometric modeling is used to analyze spatial displacements. General movement trends are described by using the displacements of a sufficient number of discrete points. 位移超过预期在正常操作条件下的运动将指示可能异常行为。几何建模是用于分析空间位移。一般运动趋势描述通过使用足够数量的离散点的位移。 (5) Data presentation 数据显示
Survey reports for monitoring projects should have a standardized format. Reports should contain a summary of the results in both tabulated and graphical form. All supporting information, analyses, and data should be documented in an appendix format. Conclusions and recommendations should be clearly presented in an executive summary.
调查报告监控项目应该有一个标准化的格式。报告应该包含结果的摘要列表和图形的形式。
所有支持信息,分析和数据应记录在附录格式。结论和建议应清楚地提出了一个概要。
(6) Data management 数据管理
Subsequent processing would further reduce the observed data into series file or campaign file following the structure of the data management system.
Survey data and processed results should be archived, indexed, and cross-referenced to existing structural performance records. These should be easily located and retrievable whenever the need arises.
Data management using computer-based methods is strongly recommended.
One of the main difficulties with creating a data management system that includes historical data is the time and cost required to transfer existing hardcopy data into an electronic database for each project.
后续处理将进一步减少观测数据到系列文件或竞选文件数据管理系统的结构。 调查数据和处理结果应归档,索引,并且参照现有结构性能记录。这些应该很容易找到并在必要时可收回。
强烈建议使用电脑数据管理方法。
的一个主要困难与创建一个数据管理系统,包括历史数据所需的时间和成本现有硬拷贝数据转移到一个电子数据库为每个项目。
Gradual transition to fully electronic data management on future project surveys should be adopted. Data management tools such as customized software, database software, and spreadsheet programs should be used to organize, store, and retrieve measurement data and processed results. A standard format for archiving data should be established for all monitoring projects.
逐步过渡到完全应该采用电子数据管理对未来项目的调查。数据管理工具,如定制软件、数据库软件、电子表格程序应该被用来组织、存储和检索和处理测量数据结果。归档数据的标准格式应该建立对所有监测项目。 8.3.3 Monitoring techniques 监测技术
1. Reference points and target points 参考点和目标点
The general procedures to monitor the deformation of a structure and its foundation involve measuring the spatial displacement of selected object points (i.e., target points) from external reference points that are fixed in position.
一般的程序来监视基础结构及其涉及的变形测量所选对象的空间位移点(例如,目标点)从外部参考点位置是固定的。
When the reference points are located in the structure, only relative deformation is determined (through joint measurements) by micrometer. When the reference points are located outside the actual structure and beyond the area that may be affected, the measurements of absolute deformations or displacements are possible.
Subsequent periodic observations are then made relative to these absolute reference points.
参考点位于结构时,只有相对变形(通过测微计联合测量)决定。当参考点位于外部的实际结构和可能影响的区域之外,绝对变形或位移的测量成为可能。 然后后续定期观测相对于这些绝对参考点。 2. Reference point network 参考网
In general, for a structure to be monitored, it is ideal to select the reference points in the unaffected places.Once permanently monumented, these reference points can be easily accessed to perform deformation surveys with simple measurement devices. Fixed reference points located within the vicinity of the structure but outside the range of its impact are essential to determination of the deformation behavior of the structure. Thus, monitoring networks of the structure should be supplemented by and connected to triangulation networks and vertical control whenever possible.
一般来说,结构要监视,它是理想的选择参考点在未受影响的地方永久标尺,可以很容易地访问这些参考点进行变形与简单的测量设备的调查。固定参考点位于附近的结构,但其影响的范围之外确实定至关重要的变形行为结构。因此,监控网络的结构应辅以和连接到三角网络和垂直控制尽可能。 3. Monitoring methods 监测方法
Deformation monitoring methods can be generally divided into geodetic, geotechnical (or structural) survey methods.
变形监测方法通常可以分为大地,岩土工程(或结构)调查方法。 (1) Geodetic measurement 大地测量
The geodetic measurement ( highly understood by engineering surveyors) are usually GPS, close-range photogrammetry with the use of terrestrial or aerial camera, precise theodolite and levels, total station, laser scanners, and a very long baseline interferometry. A number of surveying methods have also been modified and applied to yield the highest possible accuracies. Geodetic measurements involve the observations of horizontal angles, or directions, spatial distances, and height differences.
大地测量(高度理解工程测量员)通常是GPS、数字化摄影使用地面或航空摄影机,
精确的经纬仪和水平,全站仪,激光扫描仪,和很长基线干预。测量方法也被修改和应用取得尽可能高的精度。包括大地测量水平角度的观察,或方向,空间的距离,和高度的差异。
(2) Geotechnical measurement 岩土工程测量
Geotechnical (or structural) measurement consists of similar geometric quantities, but over a much smaller extent than for geodetic measurements (distances to a few meters rather than hundreds of meters), as well as measurements of the physical or mechanical state of the object being monitored, using lasers, tiltmeters, strainmeters, extensometers, joint-meters, plumb lines, micrometers, etc.
岩土工程(或结构)几何量测量包括相似,但在一个小得多的程度上比大地测量(距离几米而不是几百米),以及测量的物理或机械的状态被监控的对象,使用激光,tiltmeters,应变观测,extensometers,joint-meters,垂直线条,千分尺等。 4. Relative displacement observations 相对位移观测
A more routine, less costly, and more frequent monitoring process can be employed to monitor the short term behavior of the structure by simply confining observation to the selected points along certain direction line. Such procedures typically involve simple angle measurement or alignment (supplementing the measuring installation) along the line to determine horizontal displacement, and elevation determination by leveling to determine vertical displacement (i.e., settlement). Even with this monitoring process, it is essential to extend leveling to some distance beyond the abutments. Alternative methods to that described include settlement gauges, hose leveling devices, or extensometers. 更常规的、低成本和更频繁的监控过程可以用来监控的短期行为结构通过简单的观察选择的点沿着一定的方向线。这些程序通常涉及简单的角度测量或对齐(补充测量安装)沿线确定水平位移,和高程确定的水平来确定垂直位移(即结算)。即使这个监控过程,有必要扩展平整无缝线路以外的一些距离。替代方法来描述包括结算仪表、软管水准测量设备,或extensometers。 8.3.4 Monitoring data processing 监测数据处理 1. Monitoring data calculations 监测数据计算
Coordinate differencing and observation differencing are the two principal methods used to determine structural displacements from surveying data. Coordinate differencing methods are recommended for most applications that require long-term periodic monitoring. Observation differencing is mainly used for short-term monitoring projects or as a quick field check on the raw data as they are collected.
坐标差分和观察差分的两个主要方法用于确定结构的位移测量数据。坐标差分方法推荐对于大多数应用程序,需要长期定期监测。观察差分主要用于短期监测项目或快速现场检查原始数据收集。 (1) Coordinate differencing 坐标差分
Monitoring point positions from two independent surveys are required to determine displacements by coordinate final adjusted Cartesian coordinates (i.e., the coordinate components) from these two surveys are arithmetically differenced to determine point displacements. A major advantage of the coordinate differencing method is that each survey campaign can be independently analyzed for blunders and for data adjustment quality. However, great care must be taken to remove any
systematic errors in the measurements, for example by applying all instrument calibration corrections, and by rigorously following standard data reduction procedures.
监测点位置从两个独立的调查需要确定位移协调differencing.The最终调整笛卡儿坐标(即协调组件)这两个调查是算术上differenced确定位移。坐标差分方法的一个主要优势是,每个调查活动可以独立分析错误和数据调整质量。然而,必须非常小心消除系统误差的测量,例如通过应用所有仪器校准修正,并严格遵循标准数据简化程序。
2. Monitoring data presentation 监测数据显示
Regular use of engineering illustrations and other visual aids such as, graphs and plots, give an immediate picture of the structure’s behavior.
经常使用的工程和其他视觉教具如插图,图表和情节,给予立即的画面结构的行为。
It is equally important to have tabulated displacement values, accuracy evaluations, and data quality indicators that support the reliability and significance of the results.
Each single epoch displacement vector should be plotted on a schematic of the structure along with its associated point error ellipse for the base epoch. To enhance clarity, vertical movement components are plotted on a separate elevation view.
Various types of summary data plots can be used for interpreting the structural displacement time history.
同样重要的是表格式位移值,准确评估,支持和数据质量指标的可靠性和意义的结果。
应该标注在每一个时代的位移矢量的原理结构及其相关点误差椭圆的基础时期。以提高清晰度,垂直运动组件标注在一个单独的正视图。
各种类型的汇总数据块可以用于解释结构位移随时间的变化。 (1) Most recent epoch 最近的时期
For plots of the most recent survey epoch, the displacements are compared to the initial baseline survey (to indicate total net movement). The actual displacements are compared against the maximum amount of expected movement.
情节的时代最近的调查,比较了位移初始基线调查显示总净运动)。实际的位移比较反对预期运动的最大数量。 (2) Critical areas 关键领域
Detailed plots can be made for areas that require greater attention, such as structural or foundation interfaces.
详细的情节我们可以提出区域,需要更多的关注,如结构或基础接口。 (3) Trend plots 趋势图
Cumulative trends in the coordinate data sets from year to year should be computed to determine if the movement behavior is consistent over time. Displacement velocity and acceleration trends can refine the frequency needed for future surveys. 累积趋势坐标数据集每年应计算确定运动行为是一致的。位移速度、加速度的趋势可以完善未来所需的频率的调查。 3. Trend Analysis
Once more than one campaign has been observed or once enough data are
contained in a series, it is necessary to determine the tendency that is being exhibited in space or over time or both.The observed tendencies are then brought together to suggest possible forms of models, i.e., the choice of parameters to be estimated.
一旦观察到多个活动或系列中包含足够的数据之后,需要确定的趋势表现在空间或时间或both.The观察倾向然后聚集了建议可能形式的模型,即参数估计的选择。
The trend analysis acts as a filter by extracting the behavior of interest from the time series, e.g., the annual trend or rate. The extracted trends become the input or ‘observation’ in the modeling and, therefore, it is necessary to have measures of variance associated with each trend.
趋势分析充当一个过滤器,从时间序列中提取感兴趣的行为,例如,年度趋势或率。提取的趋势成为建模和输入或“观察”,因此,有必要措施方差与每一个相关的趋势。
The spatial trend can be derived for one or two dimensional networks by considering the differences in coordinates estimated in the individual campaign adjustments. Spatial trend can also be derived from vertical displacement profile. 空间趋势可以为一个或二维网络通过考虑不同的坐标估计在个人活动调整。空间趋势也可以来自垂直位移概要文件。
Finally the reporting of the deformation survey should include the history of the project as some projects could extend over a significant period of time.
The report should also include the methodology containing results of the individual campaign (epoch), the geometrical displacements and the quality of the displacements, graphic depiction and recommendations or conclusions.
最后变形调查的报告应包括项目的历史,一些项目在相当一段时间可能会延长。 报告还应该包括包含个人竞选结果的方法(时代),几何位移和位移的质量,图形描述和建议或结论。
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